BULLETIN  No.  32.  SAN  FRANCISCO,  MARCH,  1904. 


PRODUCTION  AND  USE 


OF 


PETROLEUM  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

COMPLIMENTS  OF 

F.  McN   HAMILTON 

tttATt  MiMSAAkOttlllT 

ISSUED  BY 

CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINING  BUREAU, 

FERRY  BUILDING,  SAN  FRANCISCO. 

LEWIS  E.  AUBURY         -        -        State  Mineralogist. 


SACRAMENTO. 

W.  W  SHANNON       -       -       -      SUPERINTENDENT  STATE  PRINTING 

1904. 

UBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CM  .IFORNIA 
DAVIS 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


To  Hon.  George  C.  Pardee,   Governor  of  the  State  of  California^  and 
the  Honorable  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  State  Mining  Bvrenv  : 

Gentlemen  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  to  you  Bulletin  No.  32, 
entitled  "Production  and  Use  of  Petroleum  in  California."  This 
bulletin  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Paul  W.  Prutzman,  Engineering 
Chemist,  of  this  city,  from  his  own  observations  and  from  data  and 
photographs  furnished  by  Field  Assistants  of  the  State  Mining  Bureau; 
also  from  authorities  to  whom  credit  is  given  in  the  following  pages. 

The  work  on  the  bulletin  has  extended  over  a  period  of  two  years, 
and  the  greatest  care  has  been  exercised  in  the  collection  of  accurate 
data  concerning  the  subject  treated.  It  was  completed  and  the  manu- 
script handed  to  me  in  March  of  this  year,  but  it  has  taken  some  time 
to  prepare  engravings,  maps,  etc.,  and  to  have  the  bulletin  printed. 
The  aim  of  the  bulletin  is  to  describe  the  conditions  under  which 
petroleum  is  produced,  the  amount,  source,  and  character  of  ])r()duction 
of  same,  and  to  outline  some  of  the  more  im})<)rtant  ways  in  which  tlie 
output  is  consumed.  As  the  subject  has  been  one  of  considerable  detail, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  condense  the  matter  as  far  as  possible. 

Bulletin  No.  31,  of  this  department,  has  been  inserted  in  this  pub- 
lication. This  data  concerning  authentic  samples  of  oil,  collected  l>y  a 
Field  Assistant  of  the  Bureau,  with  analyses  of  the  same  n)ade  by  Mr. 
H.  N.  Cooper,  has  been  embodied  in  Bulletin  No.  32  in  order  that  the 
information,  which  is  considered  of  value  to  tliose  interested  in  the  oil 
industry,  might  be  at  hand  with  other  data  concerning  the  subject. 

The  bulletin   has  been  prepared  with  a  view  of  submitting  to  the 


4  LETTER    OF   TRANSMITTAL. 

general  public  a  knowledge  of  conditions  existing  in  the  oil  industry  at 
the  present  time.  As  in  other  bulletins  prepared  under  my  direction, 
endeavor  has  been  made  to  avoid  technicalities  wherever  possible,  in- 
tlie  hope  of  making  the  bulletin  plain  and  readal^le  to  all  interested  in 
petroleum  and  its  uses  in  this  State. 

Thanks  are  due  and  are  cordially  extended  to  all   those  who  have 
aided  Mr.  Prutzman  in  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

LEWIS  E.  A U BURY, 

State  Mineralogist. 

San  Francisco,  June  30,  1904. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  1. 


CHAPTER  1. 


CHAPTER  2. 


CHAPTER  3. 


PRODUCTION. 

PAGE. 

History  and  Production 9 

Tables  of  pi'o<luetion 12 

Topography:  Geology:  Drilling . 13 

Topography  aii<l  climate 1.3 

Geology 14 

DiflSculties  of  drilling 15 

Cost  of  wells 17 

Land  titles 17 

Field  Operations IH 

Table  of  field  operations 19 

Fullerton 20 

Puente 22 

Whittier 24 

Los  Angeles  City 27 

Newhall 29 

Summerland 32 

Kern  River 35 

Sunset 38 

Midway 40 

McKittrick : 41 

Coalinga .  43 

Santa  Maria -  45 

Ventura  County 47 


PART  J. 


USES   OF  CRUDE  OIL. 


CHAPTER  4.     Physical  Characteristics  of  California  Crude 50 

Color ;  Odor ;  Specific  gravity ;  Viscosity 50 

Pipe-lines - 51 

Flash  point ---  53 

Calorific  value 54 

Table  of  physical  characteristics 54 

Cleaning  crude  oil 55 

CHAPTER  5.     The  Use  of  Oil  for  Fuel . 58 

Transportation;   Storage  space. 58 

Cleanliness;  Labor;  Regulation 59 

Capacity;  Economy - --- 60 

Combustion 62 

Air  for  combustion - ---  64 

Horizontal  boiler  trials ..- - - -  66 

Tabular  record  of  boiler  trials 67 

Evaporation  per  ])ound - ---  68 

Comparison  of  costs 69 


6  TABLE    OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

CHAPTERS.     Injection  and  Burners  . --- --  "1 

Types  of  burners 72 

Selection  of  burner;   Adjustment;   Installation 79 

Compressed  air 80 

CHAPTER  7.     The  Firebox. ._ 81 

CHAPTER  8.     Storage  and  Heating 85 

Temperature 85 

Gas ---- 86 

Size  of  pump - 87 

Pressure;  Gravity  feed 88 

Piping;   Heaters --. 89 

Pressure  regulation 93 

Connections 94 

Impurities  in  oil 95 

Estimation  of  impurity 96 

Gasoline  test 97 

CHAPTER  9.     Regulation  of  Oil  Fires 97 

Quantity  of  air 97 

Explosions 98 

Carbon  deposits;  Superheating 99 

CHAPTER  10.     Liquid  Fuel  in  Locomotives 100 

The  combustion  chamber 100 

Conversion  of  engines 101 

Firing-up 102 

Air  spraying 103 

Advantages  of  oil  burning 103 

Combination  tenders 107 

Cost  of  converting  an  engine 107 

Locomotive  fuel  tests 109 

Comparative  tests 112 

CHAPTER  11.     Liquid  Fuel  on  Steamships 113 

List  of  oil-burning  vessels 114 

Storage  space 115 

Fuel  weight 116 

Government  boiler  tests 117 

Fuels  used 121 

Steam  in  burners 122 

Efficiency 122 

Capacity 123 

Conclusions  of  the  board 123 

Steamer  "  Mariposa" -. 124 

Report  of  Lieut.  Ward  Winchell 130 

Log  of  "  Mariposa" 136 

Steamer  "Berkeley" 138 

Economy 141 

Government  requirements 142 

Water-tube  boilers 146 

Boiler  trials 148 

CHAPTER  12.     Minor  Uses  of  Fuel  Oil 151 

Copper  smelting .   151 

Glass-making 155 

Brick-burning 1.58 

Pile  protection 159 

CHAPTER  13.     Petroleum  in  Gas-making '. 161 

Coal  gas 162 

Water  gas 163 


TARl.E    OF   CONTENTS.  7 

i'A(;k. 

CHAPTER   14.     Oiled  Roads 168 

Oil  sprinkliiit: 1H9 

Cons t ruct ion  of  oiled  road 170 

Roads  ill  adobe  soil ^  174 

Road  ill  San  Bernardino  County.-. 174 

Roads  in  Golden  (Jate  Park _  177 

Specifications  for  oiling  streets  in  Santa  Barbara 178 

Roads  in  Kern  County 180 

Quality  of  oil 182 

Asplialt  in  crude  oil 182 

Testing.- 182 

Valuation 184 

Residuuni 185 

CHAPTER   15.     California's  Oil-Refining  Industry 185 

Light  oil  rertning 186 

Qualities  of  commercial  products 187 

••  Refining  oils" _  191 

Commercial  analyses 191 

Proximate  analyses 197 

Methods  of  refill ing 198 

Manipulation  of  products 202 

Distillation  for  asjihalt 203 

Oil  asphalt 204 

Liquid  asphalts 207 

Paving 208 

The  refining  industry  ;  List  of  refineries 209 

CHAPTER  16.     Chemistry  of  California  Petroleum 220 

Hydrocarbons 220 

Incidental  constituents 223 

Table  of  incidental  constituents 224 

Table  of  ultimate  analyses 225 

Regarding  purification 225 


PRODUCTION  AND  USE  OF  PETROLEUM  IN 

CALIFORNIA. 


By  PAUL  W.  PRUTZMAN, 

Engineering  Chemist. 


PART  I.    PRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  1. 
HISTORY  AND  PRODUCTION. 

History. — The  existence  of  asphaltum  and  petroleum  in  California 
was  familiar  to  the  first  settlers  in  the  State,  and  semi-solid  bitumen 
from  seepages  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  was  used,  from  very 
early  times,  as  fuel  and  as  a  cement.  As  early  as  1856  the  more  liquid 
petroleum  from  several  seepages  was  collected  and  refined  in  a  crude 
way,  burning  and  lubricating  oils  being  made.  At  least  one  of  these 
refineries  was  quite  an  extensive  affair,  but  none  of  them  seem  to  have 
been  successful  financially,  and  all  were  soon  abandoned,  although  a 
number  of  asphalt  refining  plants,  established  at  about  the  same  time, 
were  longer  lived.  The  earliest  of  these  refineries  antedated  the  first 
production  of  oil  from  wells  by  at  least  eight  years,  a  rather  remarkable 
reversal  of  the  usual  order.* 

The  oil  industry  of  California  actually  dates  back  to  1865,  when 
Prof.  Benjamin  Silliman  was  called  on,  by  parties  having  interests  in 
Ventura  County,  to  collect  and  examine  samples  of  petroleum  from 
seepages  in  that  district.  His  report  was  so  glowing  in  its  praises  of 
the  oils  obtained,  and  the  times  were  so  propitious  (being  contemporary 
with  the  oil  excitement  in  Pennsylvania),  that  immense  enthusiasm 
was  created  among  the  speculatively  inclined,  and  developments  were 
undertaken  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  State.  Wells  were  drilled  in 
Humboldt,  Mendocino,  Santa  Clara,  Santa  Cruz,  Contra  Costa,  Colusa, 
Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  and  possibly  in  other  counties,  but  no  actual 
production  was  obtained  outside  of  Ventura  County.  Drilling  proved  to 
be  very  difficult,  so  that  a  large  number  of  holes  were  spoiled;  it  soon 
appeared  that  Prof.  Silliman  had  been  grossly  imposed  on  in  the  matter 
of  samples,  the  oil  actually  obtained  being  of  far  different  quality  from 
that  which  he  examined,  and  the  boom  proved  a  fleeting  one.     Some 

1  For  full  information  as  to  these  early  operations  consult  Reports  of  the  State  Min- 
eralogist of  California,  years  1884  and  1887. 


10  PKTROLEUM    IN    CAMFORNIA. 

producing  \\ells  were,  liowcver,  obtained  in  the  f^hallow  formationp  of 
Ventura  County,  and  from  this  nucleus  gradually  but  slowly  grew  an 
industry  of  considerable  local  importance. 

From  this  time  on.  very  little  development  work  was  done  until,  in 
1892,  E.  S.  Doheny  drilled  by  hand  a  shallow  well  near  some  asphaltum 
deposits  in  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  and  obtained  a  small  but  steady 
production  of  heavy  l>lack  oil.  The.  interest  caused  by  this  discovery 
not  only  In-ought  about  the  drilling  of  several  hundred  wells  in  the 
vicinity,  most  of  which  were  and  still  are  productive,  but  renewed 
interest  also  in  the  outlying  tields.  Again  prospecting  was  undertaken 
at  many  points,  and  again  with  practically  no  results  for  the  time. 
But  it  had  been  demonstrated  that  oil  existed  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Ventura  County,  and  the  work  of  the  wildcatter  was  now  carried  forward 
with  much  more  vigor,  and  with  immensely  better  chances  of  success. 
In  1895,  C.  A.  Canfield  and  others  took  over  a  property  in  Fresno 
County,  near  the  little  village  of  Coalinga,  where  other  Los  Angeles 
parties  had  been  drilling  without  results,  and  after  much  effort  finally 
brought  in  a  small  well,  which  produced  the  lightest  oil  found  in  the 
State  up  to  that  time.  Some  little  interest  was  aroused,  and  several 
companies  based  on  local  capital  started  to  drill  in  or  near  the  section 
where  Mr.  Canfield  was  still  working,  and  in  1896,  after  a  number  of 
small  wells  had  been  finished,  the  Home  Oil  Company  of  Selma  brought 
in  the  famous  "  Blue  Goose,"  a  flowing  well  of  very  respectable  pro- 
portions. 

The  boom  which  followed  this  discovery  was  unrivaled  in  the  history 
of  the  State,  for  hardly  had  the  interest  in  this  discovery,  and  in  the 
large  wells  which  followed  it,  subsided,  than  oil  was  discovered  on  the 
James  Means  ranch  near  Bakersfield.  Within  three  years  some  two 
thousand  four  hundred  oil  companies  filed  incorporation  papers  in  this 
State;  most  of  this  number  sold  more  or  less  stock,  while  at  least  twelve 
hundred  companies  did  some  actual  drilling.  Again  the  State  was 
punctured  from  one  end  to  the  other,  but  this  time  with  much  more 
success,  for  while  the  northern  counties  again  failed  to  fulfill  expecta- 
tions, the  operators  in  Kern  River,  Coalinga,  Sunset,  Midway,  McKit- 
trick,  Whittier,  and  Fullerton  were  more  fortunate. 

The  boom  went  the  way  of  all  booms.  Great  numbers  of  companies 
were  promoted  by  unprincipled  parties,  who  put  the  proceeds  of  stock 
sales  out  of  harm's  way;  many  more  w'ere  so  mismanaged  as  to  waste 
their  entire  resources  on  preparations,  while  others  were  unfortunate  in 
their  locations.  The  production  of  the  Kern  River  field  for  the  first 
year  was  several  times  the  entire  production  of  the  State  for  an}--  year 
previous,  and  as  a  consequence  the  price  of  oil,  which  had  ranged  from 
$1  to  $1.50  per  barrel,  fell  to  eight  or  ten  cents,  producing  companies 
could  not  pay  running  expenses,  stock  sales  ceased,  and  the  bubble 
collapsed. 


H13TOUY    AND    rUODlCTloN.  11 

But  the  boom,  while  disastrous  to  many  individuals,  was  of  much 
real  benefit  to  the  oil  industry  and  to  the  State  at  large.  Hundreds  of 
companies  located  in  the  most  remote  and  unlikely  spots,  where  legiti- 
mate capital  would  probably  never  have  been  risked,  and  while  the 
percentage  of  failures  was  of  course  very  large,  yet  the  wildcatters  did 
develop  several  hundred  wells  in  entirely  new  territory,  thus  proving 
up  ground  which  would  otherwise  have  remained  untouched,  and  when 
the  excitement  had  passed  away  the  production  of  the  State  had  in- 
creased from  two  and  one-half  million  to  nearly  seven  and  three-fourths 
million  barrels  per  annum,  an  enormous  amount  of  well-invested  capital 
remained  in  the  business,  and  it  had  been  shown  that,  under  rational 
management,  the  production  of  and  even  the  prospecting  for  petroleum 
in  California  formed  legitimate  employment  for  capital. 

Production. — The  present  production  of  petroleum  in  this  State  is 
purely  and  simply  a  matter  of  possible  consum}>tion.  The  potential 
possibilities  of  increase  of  production  is  hardly  a  matter  for  figures. 
The  fields  mentioned  farther  on  as  producing  fields  include,  as  may 
readily  ])e  seen  on  examination  of  the  accompanying  maps,  several 
hundred  square  miles  of  territory  which,  while  not  all  definitely  proven 
up,  is  highly  probable  to  prove  profitable  ground.  And  further,  of  all 
the  forty  or  so  square  miles  of  actually  producing  territory  in  the  State, 
there  is  probably  not  one  square  mile,  outside  of  Los  Angeles,  Summer- 
land,  and  some  parts  of  Ventura  County,  which  has  l)een  drilled  to 
anything  like  its  maxinuim  capacity.  This  is  not  the  place  to  go  into 
details  as  to  possible  production,  but  it  will  probably  be  admitted  with- 
out argument,  by  most  persons  familiar  with  the  situation,  that  the 
present  production  could  l)e  increased,  did  the  consumption  w^arrant, 
by  at  least  three  or  four  times,  within  the  time  required  to  sink  the 
necessary  wells. 

In  the  year  1901  the  production  of  petroleum  for  the  entire  world 
was  165,350,000  barrels  (Mineral  Resources,  1901,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey), 
of  which  the  United  States  produced  69,350,000,  or  41.97%.  In  this 
year  California  produced  about  7,750,000  barrels,  equal  to  12.7%  of  the 
production  of  the  United  States,  or  5.33%  of  the  production  of  the  entire 
world. 

In  1902,  the  total  mineral  production  of  California  was  valued  at 
$35,000,000.  The  })roduct  of  first  importance  was  gold,  valued  at 
$16,900,000;  petroleum  was  second,  with  $5,200,000;  and  structural 
materials  third,  with  $4,100,000.  The  comparison  of  these  figures  does 
not,  however,  give  petroleum  its  proper  place  as  to  imi)ortance  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  State.  The  sums  realized  from  manufacturing  in- 
dustries made  possible  to  the  State  by  the  large  output  of  cheap  fuel 
oil  are  not  subject  to  calculation,  ))ut  must  l)e  very  large.  It  would  l)e 
difficult  to  overestimate   the   impetus  given   to   local  industry  by  the 


12 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNLA.. 


cheaptniing  of  fuel  (hiring  the  Last  two  years.  At  present  prices,  petro- 
k'lini  for  steam  generation  costs  in  Ban  Francisco  a  very  little  more 
than  the  equivalent  quantity  of  coal  would  cost  in  New  York  city. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  for  years  coal  of  a  rather  inferior  quality 
sold  in  cargo  lots  at  this  port  at  from  $4.00  to  $5.50  per  ton,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  reduction  in  fuel  costs  has  been  enormous. 

The  folloAving  tal)le  shows  the  quantity  of  petroleum  produced  in 
California  from  1898  to  1902,  inclusive;  the  estimated  value;  the  per- 
centage of  the  total  i)roduction  of  the  United  States  as  to  quantity  and 
as  to  value;  and  the  rank  of  California  among  the  American  states,  as 
to  quantity  produced  and  as  to  value  of  the  product: 

TABLE  1.  Quantity  of  Petroleum  Produced  in  California  from  1898  to  1902,  inclusive; 
Estimated  Value;  Percentage  of  Total  Production  of  United  States,  and  Rank  of 
Califopnia  among  American  States. 


Year. 

Prodi 

CTION. 

PERCENTAtiE. 

Rank. 

Barrels. 

Value. 

1 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1898 

2,249,088 
2,677,875 
4,329,950 

$2,376,420 
2,660,793 
4,152,928 

4.06% 
4.60 

5th 

1899 

5th 

1900 

6.76 

5.36% 

5th 

5th 

1901 - 

7,710,315 

2,961,122 

12.70 

4.46 

4th 

5th 

1902 

14,356,910 

4,692,189 

16.44 

4th 

Table  2,  following,  shows  the  production  by  counties  for  the  same 
years,  in  barrels,  in  value,  and  in  percentages  of  the  State's  production 
as  to  quantity  and  value: 


TABLE  2.     PRODUCTION  BY  COUNTIES,  1897  TO   1902. 


1897. 

1898.- 

Barrels. 

Value. 

Barrels. 

Value. 

Fresno             -  . 

7(1,140 

3.6%'         !R70.840 

3.7% 

154,000 

10,000 

1,462,871 

60,000 

i:S2,217 

3,000 

427,000 

2,249,088 

6.8% 

0.5 
65.0 

2.7 

5.9 

0.1 
19.0 

$154,000 

10,000 

1,462,871 

60,000 

112,549 

6,000 

571,000 

6.5% 

Kern 

0.4 

Los  Angeles 

Orange 

Santa  Barbara 

Santa  Clara 

Ventura 

1,327,011 

12,000 

130,136 

4,000 

368,282 

69.5 
0.6 
6.8 
0.2 

19.3 

1,327.011 
12,000 

130,i;^6 
10,000 

:%8,282 

69.3 
0.6 

6.7 
0.5 
19.2 

61.6 
2.5 
4.7 
0.3 

24.0 

1,911,569 

$1,918,269 

$2,376,420 

HISTOKY    AM)    rRODlCTION TOVOGKAPHY,    ETC. 

TABLE  2.     PRODUCTION  BY  COUNTIES,   1897  TO   1902     Continued. 


1  '> 
lo 


189!). 

1900. 

Barre 

s. 

Value. 

Barrels. 

Value. 

Fresno 

489,372 

16.5% 

.1:439,372 

16.5% 

547,i«30 

12.6% 

$547,W)0 

1.3.2% 

Kern 

15,(X)0 

0.6 

13,500 

0.5 

919,275 

21.3 

827,348 

19.9 

Los  Angeles 

l,mKS56 

52.7 

1,409,356 

53.0 

1,722,887 

39.9 

1 ,722.887 

41 .5 

Orange 

108,077 

4.0 

108.077 

4.1 

254,397 

5.9 

2.54,397 

6.1 

Santa  Barbara  . . 

2(IS.H70 

7.9 

191,288 

7.2 

183,486 

4.3 

165,138 

4.0 

1  500 

0  1 

3  000 

0.1 

Ventura              --  - 

496,200 

18.2 

496,200 

18.6 

443,000 

10.3 

398,700 

9.6 

T' nap]  tort  ion  eti 

248,945 

5.7 

236,498 

5.7 

2,677,875 

$2,660,793 

4,319,950 

4,152,928    

1901. 

1902. 

I'resno 

525,433 

6.8% 

$236,444 

8.0% 

571,233 

4.0% 

$199,931 

4.2% 

Kern . 

3,902,125 

50.7 

1,131,616 

38.2 

9,777,948 

68.0 

1,955,585 

41.7 

Los  Angeles 

2,304,432 

29.9 

1,062,038 

36.0 

2,198,496 

15.4 

1,075,868 

22.9 

Orange 

302,652 

3.9 

181,591 

6.1 

1,103,793 

7.7 

824,492 

17.6 

Santa  Barbara 

203,616 

2.6 

113,385 

3.7 

230,440 

1.6 

181,.S13 

3.9 

Ventura . 

472,057 

6.1 

2:36,028 

8.0 

475,000 

3.3 

455,000 

9.7 

7,710,-315 

$2,961,102 

14,356,910 

$4,692,189 

CHAPTER  2. 
TOPOGRAPHY:  GEOLOGY:  DRILLING.' 

Topography  and  Climate. — The  State  of  California,  covering  an  area 
of  about  156,000  square  miles,  and  extending  over  ten  degrees  each  of 
latitude  and  longitude,  embraces  within  its  bounds  all  the  variations  of 
topography  and  climate  known  to  the  temperate  zone.  With  the  moun- 
tainous forest  region  to  the  north,  the  territory  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  on 
the  east,  and  the  alkaline  desert  east  of  the  mountains,  this  article  has 
no  connection,  and  they  may  be  passed  witliout  comment.  The  oil 
deposits  of  the  State  have  been  confined  to  the  central  valley  and  to  the 

'  Reproduced  from  a  paper  by  tlie  writer  in  "  Petroleum  Review  and  Mining  News" 
(London),  October  24,  I'KtS. 


14  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Coast  Range,  and  of  these  districts  both  climate  and  topography  merit  a 
brief  description. 

The  magnificent  Sierra  Nevada  range,  which  in  general  height  about 
equals  the  Alps,  slopes  gradually  down  to  the  valleys  of  the  San  Joaquin 
and  Sacramento  rivers,  lying  in  the  center  of  the  State,  and  paralleling 
its  length  for  some  four  hundred  miles.  These  rivers  flow  from  north 
and  south  toward  the  center  of  the  State,  where  they  bend  to  the  west, 
and  enter  the  Pacific  Ocean,  through  San  Pablo  Bay,  at  San  Francisco. 
The  two  valleys  thus  formed  have  an  average  breadth  of  about  forty 
miles,  with  a  soil  of  exceeding  fertility.  The  summer  climate  is  hot  and 
rainless,  that  of  winter  mild,  with  moderate  rains.  Between  these  val- 
leys and  the  ocean,  and  roughly  parallel  with  each  other  and  with  the 
coast,  lie  a  number  of  ranges  of  low  mountains,  which  together  form  the 
Coast  Range,  rising  sometimes  to  a  height  of  2000  feet.  The  eastern  side 
of  these  mountains  is  generally  barren,  but  as  the  coast  is  approached 
the  fertility  increases  and  the  climate  becomes  more  equable,  until  along 
the  coast  proper  the  difference  between  summer  and  winter  can  hardly 
be  noticed,  except  for  the  absence  of  rain  during  the  former  season.  The 
soil  of  these  hills  is  usually  of  clay  and  shale,  very  little  rock,  compara- 
tively, being  on  the  surface.  Between  these  hill  ranges  lie  many  small 
valleys,  resembling  the  central  valley  in  soil  and  climate. 

The  producing  oil  fields  are  found  at  the  southern  end  of  the  central 
valley  and  along  its  southwestern  slope,  and  on  the  ocean  side  of  the 
Coast  Range  in  its  southerly  part.  Prospecting  has  been  carried  on  in 
the  central  valley  as  far  north  as  Shasta  County,  and  on  the  ocean  slope 
of  the  Coast  Range  almost  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State.  These 
fields  are  located  with  approximate  correctness  in  the  accompanying 
map  (Fig.  1),  which  will  also  give  an  idea  as  to  transportation  facilities. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  fields  not  contiguous  to  the  coast  depend 
entirely  on  the  railroads,  the  rivers  not  being  navigable,  and  that  the 
Tehachapi  Mountains  in  southern  Kern  County  form  a  natural  division 
to  the  State,  on  account  of  heavy  grades  and  consequent  high  freights. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  territory  north  of  these  mountains  is  tributary 
to  San  Francisco,  as  this  is  the  only  point  at  which  the  Coast  Range  is 
enough  broken  to  allow  easy  access  to  the  ocean,  and  south  of  these 
mountains  to  Los  Angeles.  The  refining  oil  of  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura, 
and  Los  Angeles  counties  finds  its  way  to  San  Francisco  by  water,  and 
to  Los  Angeles  by  rail;  the  heavy  oil  goes  to  Los  Angeles. 

Geolog'y. — The  geological  structure  of  the  State  is  simple  in  theor)', 
though  complicated  enough  in  detail.  The  granitic  core  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  forms  the  backbone  of  the  State,  and  carries  on  its  flanks  nar- 
row exposures  of  pre-Cretaceous  strata  running  back  as  far  as  Devonian, 
usually  much  altered,  and  overlaid  on  the  west  by  the  Pleistocene  for- 
mations of  the  central  valley.     West  of  the  valley  the  Coast  Range  shows 


SISK 


2— BUL.  32 


OREGOM 


^'     .f/-'  ^'®-  ^->V-v 

TTE  ,-45;.''sieSf 


HUMBOLTfr         ,,     ,.„, 


MENOdCNO       . 

,     ^    GLEN  I 


0    «@  LAKE 

6N0VIA  VNAPfl 


MAP   OF 


:RUB 


SHOWING  LOCATION'  OF 


OIL  DISTRICTS 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINING  BUREAU 

FERP^    BriLDING,  SAN  FRANCISCO 

LEWIS  E  AUBURY.  State  Minteralogist 


PA^UL  ^V.   FHXTTZM^AJs 


HoNT^Ef 


Principal  Towns        •     Oil Prcducin^  Urea  I 

MmorTowns  o     HreanmbeimPmfiectedi 


\ 


A 

INDEX-" 

MO  COUNTY        NAME 

FIELDS              1 

rJCHCOUNTYl     NAME.      || 

1 

HuratoW 

run  1  etc 

15 

Kern 

McKtl  ek 

3 

Shasta 

° 

S7 

TnZ 

a 

Cclusa 

Ibrms 

M 

5anLut0bipt 

Car  w  Cuyoma 

5 

Menaoc  no 

Ukiah 

a 

Kem 

SanEmiJ  a 

6 

7 

Napa 

%  nt  Rrena 

30 
31 

SmBBirkiBi 

8 

9 

Centra  Co5^ 

t  amuM 

° 

3a 

33 

iompoc 
Summc  hnj 

10 

Sant'tatao 

la     us 

34 

«.    0 

Tthochap 

ir 
11" 

13 

^anlaCtan 
"jan  Ben  to 

.oa  &atg9 
MoeOflSuitt 

^ar^ents 
Ho  1  eler 

55 
56 
57 
38 

SaaBermfn 
Ventura 

Knmer  Vc  or 
3onii(huld 

ia 

15 

J  tterwotc^ 
frttm  inBtnt 

39 

ao 

5s)pe  To  CrseU 
Pi  u  Bu  Hhom 

16 
17 
IB 
19 

ao 

Menttre^ 
Fritm 

Mm 

Hrrtfo  Gmnae 
Coating 
SlaiUi 

SI 

He 

03 

ieiltnqelts 
Ventura 

HtnlvlhPM 

Fullsrjs^ 

fijtntl>Wh>ttitr 

Nordholf 

21 
SE 

Kern 

Hnyenhaqen 
nittleman 
Untelopilblieti 
Temblor 

OS 

a7 
as 

lifHntjtlef 
SaalaBerluni 

3an  Oie^e 

San  Pedro 

^ 


o 

SJA  SARBflRfl 

mi. 

& 

7' *a^4BERNARDIN0                    / 

\ 

l^ 

V 

^^^^ 

? 

riverVje 

\ 

-^\           's^N  OIESO            ^V^ 

icxico 


15 

generally    a    core    of    igneous 
rock,  overlaid  on  both  sides  by 
Cretaceous    and     later    forma- 
tions.    As  the    oil  deposits  in 
2  the  central  part    of   the    State 
S  are  principally  found  near  the 
^  foot  of  the  Coast   Range,  wells 
^  here    penetrate    formations   of 
57  Eocene     to     Pleistocene     age, 
I  largely  shales,  clays,  and  sand- 
5,  stones.     The  oil  wells  of  Ven- 
tura County  are  partly  located 
in  a  base  limestone  of  Eocene 
age,  partly  in  shales  of  a  some- 
what   later    period.      The    Oil 
^  City  pool  of  Coalinga  is  in  the 
g  Tejon  (Cretaceous),  some  prac- 
^  tically    unproductive    wells   in 
u  Colusa    County  are    in    Creta- 
I  ceous  formation,  and  the  New- 
^  hall  field  of  Los  Angeles  is  at 
c  the  edge  of  a  granitic  intrusion. 
■^  With  these  exceptions   our  oil 
'J^  production    is    from    strata   of 
o  Miocene  and  Pliocene  age. 
o      The    accompanying   sections 
J  (Fig.  2),  due  to  the  kindness  of 
.  Dr.   Harold  W.    Fairbanks,  of 
^  Berkeley,  Cal.,  show  in  a  gen- 
£  eralized  manner   the  order  of 
formation  across  the  State,  on 
two  lines  noted  on  Fig.  1. 

DifRculties    of   Drilling*.— 

The  exposed  formations  in  those 
parts  of  the  State  where  oil  is 
found  being,  as  stated,  of  very 
recent  formation,  it  is  but  nat- 
ural that  they  should  be  soft. 
There  are  small  areas  of  re- 
gional metamorphism  and  a 
few  exposures  of  eruptive  rock, 
the  latter  being,  as  a  rule,  de- 
composed to  soft  serpentine, 
but  neither  metamorphic  nor 
eruptive    areas    touch    the    oil 


2— BUL.  32 


°^*. 


-*< 


a 


15 

^  generally    a    core    of    igneous 
S  rock,  overlaid  on  both  sides  bv 
S  Cretaceous    and    later    forma - 
^  tions.     As  the    oil  deposits  in 
2  the  central  part   of   the    State 
S  are  principally  found  near  the 
c  foot  of  the  Coast  Range,  wells 
.«  here   penetrate    formations    of 
j?  Eocene     to     Pleistocene     age, 
I  largely  shales,  clays,  and  sand- 
C  stones.     The  oil  wells  of  Ven- 
tura County  are  partly  located 
in  a  base  limestone  of  Eocene 
age,  partly  in  shales  of  a  some- 
what   later    period.      The    Oil 
^  City  pool  of  Coalinga  is  in  the 
g  Tejon  (Cretaceous),  some  prac- 
^  tically    unproductive    wells   in 
u  Colusa    County  are    in    Creta- 
I  ceous  formation,  and  the  New- 
^  hall  field  of  Los  Angeles  is  at 
c  the  edge  of  a  granitic  intrusion. 
■^  With  these  exceptions   our  oil 
=c  production    is    from    strata    of 
o  Miocene  and  Pliocene  age. 
o      The    accompanying   sections 
J  (Fig.  2),  due  to  the  kindness  of 
Dr.   Harold  W.    Fairbanks,  of 
^  Berkeley,  Cal.,  show  m  a  gen- 
S  eralized  manner   the   order  of 
formation  across  the  State,  on 
two  lines  noted  on  Fig.  1. 

Difficulties    of   Drilling".— 

The  ex})oscd  formations  in  those 
parts  of  the  State  where  oil  is 
found  being,  as  stated,  of  very 
recent  formation,  it  is  but  nat- 
ural tliat  they  should  be  soft. 
There  are  small  areas  of  re- 
gional metamorpliism  and  a 
few  exposures  of  eruptive  rock, 
the  latter  being,  as  a  rule,  de- 
composed to  soft  serpentine, 
))ut  neither  metamorphic  nor 
eruptive    areas    toucli    the    oil 


2— BUL.  32 


16  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

fields  directly,  with  one  exception.  The  characteristic  formations 
exposed  at  points  where  oil  has  been  found,  and  those  penetrated  by 
drilling,  are  of  soft,  often  entirely  incoherent,  sandstone  and  soft  gray, 
blue  and  black  shales  and  clays,  occasionally  somewhat  calcareous. 
There  are  also  scattering  layers  of  calcareous  cement  and  of  hard  sand- 
stone, but  probably  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  depth  of  the  average  well 
is  through  loose  sands  and  soft  shales.  While  these  materials  are 
readily  drilled  through,  they  are  nevertheless  difficult  to  handle,  unless 
precaution  be  taken  against  caving.  The  shales  are  stiff,  and  stand 
up  reasonably  well  where  the  ground  is  not  too  wet,  but  the  sand  strata 
almost  always  carry  some  water,  often  a  great  deal,  and  run  very 
badly,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  case  every  foot  of  the  distance.  These 
running  sands  are  the  great  drawback  to  drilling  in  this  region,  as 
with  the  slightest  carelessness  in  the  handling  of  casing,  they  will 
freeze  two  strings  together,  so  that  it  Avill  be  necessar}^  to  draw  both,  if 
that  be  possible,  or  to  insert  a  smaller  string.  The  earlier  wells  were 
drilled  largely  by  men  accustomed  to  working  in  dry  formation,  with 
the  result  that  some  of  these  holes  can  be  found  in  which  four  strings  of 
casing  were  used  to  reach  a  depth  of  800  to  1000  feet.  With  the  expe- 
rience of  the  last  three  years  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect  has 
been  brought  about,  and  it  is  now  considered  either  bad  drilling  or 
exceptionally  bad  luck  if  more  than  three  strings  are  used  in  a  1 200-foot 
hole,  while  often  only  two  are  used.  The  rotary  hydraulic  system  was 
rather  extensively  tried,  but  abandoned  on  account  of  the  common  occur- 
rence of  bowlders  at  considerable  depth,  and  for  other  reasons.  Several 
operators  are  now  trying  a  combination  standard  and  rotary  rig,  which 
promises  well,  but  is  too  new  to  have  proven  its  usefulness. 

The  oil  sands  proper  are,  in  this  State,  true  sands,  limestones  being 
practically  unknown,  and  the  shales  almost  never  giving  more  than 
seepages.  In  general,  the  paying  streaks  lie  between  layers  of  water- 
saturated  blue  or  gray  clay,  and  consist  of  incoherent  sand  or  fine 
gravel.  Often  the  sand  is  very  fine,  and  where  the  oil  is  heavy  and  the 
gas  pressure  high,  it  is  diflicult  to  penetrate  the  sand  and  land  casing 
in  the  clay  below.  It  is  almost  always  necessary  to  case  off  the  water 
above  the  oil  sand  with  a  larger  string.  After  perforating,  the  well  is 
sand-pumped,  often  for  a  considerable  time,  until  the  cavity  around  the 
perforations  reaches  a  state  of  comparative  stability,  when  it  is  put  on 
the  pump.  But  almost  all  wells  drawing  oil  from  this  sort  of  reservoir 
will  pump  more  or  less  sand  continuously.  In  the  Los  Angeles  and 
Ventura  fields,  where  production  per  well  is  small,  and  at  Coalinga, 
where  the  oil  is  light,  jack  pumping  is  largely  practiced,  but  at  Kern 
and  Sunset,  where  the  oil  is  heavy  and  production  per  well  large,  it  has 
been  found  better  practice  to  pump  on  the  beam.     In  fact,  at  Kern 


topoghai'hy:  geology:   drilling.  17 

River,  wliere  the  sand  is  fine  and  runs  badly,  choking  of  perforations 
makes  it  necessary  to  clean  often,  and  ahnost  enforces  leaving  a  rig  at 
each  well.  It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  wells  in  this:!  soft 
formation  are  never  shot. 

Cost  of  Wells. — Data  are  not  at  hand  from  which  to  state  definitely 
the  cost  of  completing  a  well,  except  in  the  Kern  River  field;  in  fact,  at 
no  other  point  are  conditions  uniform  enough  to  allow  one  figure  to 
apply  to  all  parts  of  a  field.  In  this  district  the  average  depth  is  about 
1000  feet,  and  wells  can  be  contracted,  including  casing,  at  about  $3000 
per  Avell,Avhen  several  are  to  be  drilled  at  once.  Pumping  rig  and  steam 
plant  will,  under  the  same  conditions,  add  about  $1000  per  well,  and 
general  improvements  another  $1000,  bringing  cost  per  completed  well 
to  about  $5000.  In  Sunset  the  average  depth  is  somewhat  less,  but  cost 
per  well  would  be  about  the  same  as  at  Kern;  in  the  Midway  there  is 
much  more  range  of  depth,  and  costs  would  run  from  $5000  to  $10,000; 
at  McKittrick,  about  the  same;  and  at  Coalinga,  from  $4000  to  $8000. 
Costs,  of  course,  vary  largely  with  location  and  other  circumstances,  but 
it  might  be  safe  to  estimate  the  average  cost  per  producing  well  at  from 
$6500  to  $7000  in  the  larger  producing  fields.  Wildcatting  is,  of  course, 
much  more  expensive.  Land  values  run  from  $3500  to  $5000  per  acre 
in  the  better  parts  of  Kern  River;  from  $500  to  $1000  at  Sunset;  in  Mid- 
way, as  high  as  $1000;  at  Coalinga,  from  $250  to  $4000  or  $5000.  At 
Kern  it  is  customary  to  allow  from  one  to  two  acres  to  each  well;  at 
Sunset,  about  the  same;  at  Coalinga,  from  one  to  four  acres. 

Land  Titles. — The  larger  part  of  the  State  was  originally  the  property 
of  the  Federal  government.  This  public  land  is  divided  into  townships, 
approximately  six  miles  square,  and  with  lines  running  about  parallel 
to  the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude.  These  townships  are  divided 
into  sections,  each  one  mile  square,  as  near  as  may  be.  The  earlier 
railroads  (the  Central  Pacific  and  the  Southern  Pacific)  were  granted, 
as  subsidies,  each  odd-numbered  section  for  forty  miles  on  each  side  of 
their  roadbed,  and  these  sections,  an  enormous  area  in  total,  were  deeded 
or  "patented"  to  them  by  the  Government.  Almost  all  the  oil  fields 
cover  more  or  less  of  this  railroad  land.  In  tlie  agricultural  districts 
much  of  the  land  has  been  taken  up  on  "  homestead  entry,"  that  is,  has 
been  deeded  to  settlers  by  the  Government  in  consideration  of  certain 
specified  improvements  and  a  nominal  purchase  price.  Vacant  govern- 
ment land  may  also  be  "  located  "  under  the  placer  mining  laws,  and 
on  the  discovery  of  mineral  (with  which  petroleum  is  classed)  and  the 
performance  of  certain  requirements,  will  be  deeded  to  the  discoverer  by 
the  Government.  The  holder  of  a  Government  deed  or  "  patent  "  has 
an  unassailable  title,  but  this,  of  course,  loses  its  force  as  the  title  passes 


18  PETKOLEUM    IN    CALIFOKNIA. 

from  hand  to  liund.  In  tlic  southern  })art  of  the  State,  and  along  the 
coast,  considerable  land  is  held  on  title  acquired  from  grants  by  the 
original  S]tanish  government  and  from  original  settlement,  and  these 
titles  offer  nothing  out  of  connnon.  On  account  of  the  newness  of  the 
country  and  the  large  amount  of  land  held  ])y  original  patentees,  it  is 
proliably  easier  to  get  a  good  title  here  than  in  almost  any  other  part 
of  the  United  States.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  land  held  in  -fee, 
by  ])atent  or  otherwise,  it  being  rather  difficult  to  clear  title  to  land 
held  by  location,  l)ut  not  yet  patented. 


chaptp:h  >?. 
field  operations. 


During  the  latter  part  of  1900,  the  California  State  Mining  Bureau 
issued  a  bulletin  (Bulletin  19)  which  set  forth  in  nuich  detail  the  devel- 
opments up  to  that  time  in  all  the  fields,  both  producing  and  prospec- 
tive. The  date  of  issue  of  this  bulletin  was  during  the  height  of  the 
oil  excitement,  and  nuich  prospect  work  has  since  been  done,  covering 
in  all  twenty-six  counties.  To  describe  this  work  in  detail  would  require 
a  large  volume,  and  would  be  devoid  of  present  interest,  as  most  of  the 
prospecting  was  fruitless  of  result,  and  has  ceased,  for  the  time  at  least. 

The  following  table  (No.  3)  shows  the  number  of  wells  drilled  in 
each  county,  and  such  data  as  are  at  hand  regarding  the  resiilts.  In 
such  counties  as  contain  actually  producing  fields,  the  latter  have  been 
kept  separate,  and  the  figures  given  for  the  county  at  large  apply  only 
to  that  portion  of  the  county  outside  thi'  l)ounds  of  })i'0(lucing  fields,  as 
shown  by  maps  on  following  pages. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  while  the  numhers  of  producing  wells  stated 
are  believed  to  be  accurate,  and  while  care  has  been  taken  in  compiling 
all  the  figures,  those  for  abandoned  wells  outside  of  producing  fields 
should  not  he  taken  {oo  litei'ully.  Some  work  has  undoubtedly  escaix'd 
observation:  In  Los  Angeles  and  Ventura  counties,  in  particular,  the 
records  are  so  scattering  that  the  numl>ers  stated  for  abandoned  jiros- 
pect  holes  are  doubtless  too  small.  Further  details  as  to  producing 
fields  will  be  found  on  pages  facing  tlu'  corresponding  nia])s. 


FIKLD    Ol'EHATIONS. 


19 


TABLE  3.     RECORD  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS  TO  DECEMBER   31,    1903. 


Ri'inurks  as  to  Results 


Total 


Alameda 

Butte 

Colusa 

Contra  Costa 

Fresno 

Coaliufra  field 

<tlenn 

Humboldt 

Inyo 

Kern  

Kern  River  tield 
Sunset  field 
Midway  field 
McKittrick  field 

Kings 

Los  Angeles 

City  field 

Wliittier  field 
Puente  field 
Xewliall  field-' 

Napa 

Orange 

Fullerton  field 

Riverside 

San  Benito 

San  Bernardino 

San  Diego 

San  Luis  Obispo 

San  Mateo . 

Santa  Barbara 
Summerland  field 
Santa  Maria  field 

Santa  Clara 

Santa  Cruz 

Shasta 

Solano 

Stanislaus  _ 

Tehama 

Ventura''  .- 

Ventura*  _ 


Nothing. 

Slight  traces  of  oil. 

Traces  of  green  and  amber  oils. 

Traces  of  medium  green  oil. 

Traces  of  green  ami  black  oils. 

Traces  of  oil  reported. 

Numerous  traces  of  light  oil. 

Nothing. 

Numerous  traces  of  black  oil. 


Traces  of  green  and  black  oils. 


Traces  of  15°  green  oil. 


Nothing. 

Traces  of  medium  green  oil. 

Nothing. 

Traces  of  l)lack  oil. 

Traces  of  heavy  oil  at  several 
points. 

Black  oil,  1!>°. 

Some  gas  in  one  well. 

Nothing. 

Some  gas  in  one  well. 

Nothing. 

Nothing. 

Oil  and  gas  in  several  wells. 


iThis  figure  is  undoubtedly  too  small. 

-Only  the  portion  shown  by  map— <loes  not  include  Wiley  and  Pico. 

^Partly  estimated. 

*  Probably  too  small. 
■'Outside  of  mapped  district. 

*  District  covered  by  map  only. 


20  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


FULLERTON. 

The  FuUerton  oil  field  lies  at  the  northeast  corner  of  Orange  County, 
where  the  latter  a])uts  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 
Present  production  is  entirely  from  Orange  County. 

The  main  portion  of  the  field  occupies  a  trough-like  valley,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  southernmost  spur  of  the  Puente  Hills,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  main  range.  The  elevation  of  the  valley  floor  above  sea 
level  is  about  550  feet,  the  hills  rising  from  200  to  300  feet  higher. 

The  geological  formation  is  said  to  be  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  and 
to  be  a  regular  anticline,  with  axis  lying  east  and  west  through  the 
approximate  center  of  the  developed  field.  Depth  of  wells  varies  from 
1000  feet  to  nearly  4000  feet,  according  to  position  of  well  on  dip  of 
producing  strata.  Both  limbs  of  the  anticline  are  productive,  but  the 
oil  obtained  on  the  north  dip  averages  about  8°  lighter  than  that  from 
the  south,  while  the  oil  is  also  lighter  at  the  eastern  end  than  at  the 
western.  The  boundaries  of  the  field  do  not  seem  to  have  been  certainly 
determined  in  any  direction,  though  owing  to  the  great  depth  to  which 
drilling  has  been  carried,  and  to  the  high  gas  pressure,  many  wells 
have  been  spoiled. 

Note  Regarding  Maps. — The  intention  in  preparing  these  maps  was  to  note  develop- 
ments rather  than  to  show  land  holdings.  For  this  reason  no  titles  are  shown  excej>t 
on  plots  containing  one  or  more  producing  wells.  Further,  the  titles  and  bounds  of 
named  plots  are  largely  taken  from  other  sources  than  direct  inquiry,  and  while  believed 
to  be  in  the  main  correct,  are  not  guaranteed  to  be  accurate. 

The  discrimination  between  producing  and  abandoned  wells  is  often  a  difficult, 
always  a  delicate  matter.  In  such  a  tield  as  Coalinga,  where  the  market  for  oil  is  ample, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  any  well  not  being  pumped  is  incapable  of  producing,  and  maj'  be 
set  down  as  abandoned,  allowing  of  course  for  cleaning  operations,  etc.,  on  producing 
wells,  which  are  evident  enough.  But  in  such  fields  as  Sunset  or  Midway,  where  prac- 
tically no  oil  is  being  pumped,  it  is  a  nuitter  of  much  difficulty  to  determine  whicli 
wells  are  capable  of  production. 

To  relieve  this  difficulty  somewhat,  the  half-black  mark  has  been  adopted.  This 
mark  indicates  a  doubt  as  to  producing  value,  or  the  lack  of  definite  information.  In 
Los  Angeles,  Whittier,  FuUerton,  Newhall,  McKittrick,  and  Kern  River,  this  mark  is 
intended  to  indicate  that  the  well  is  not  pumping,  while  others  nearby  are  at  work;  the 
presumption  is  that  such  wells  are  not  profitable  at  present,  yet  there  seems  reason  to 
believe  that  they  might  become  producers  under  more  favorable  circumstances.  In 
Summerland  the  mark  indicates  wells  not  being  pumped,  but  which  have  not  been 
abandoned,  while  wells  from  which  pumping  rigs  have  been  removed  are  placed  in  the 
abandoned  class.  In  Sunset  and  Midway  wells  so  marked  are  rigged,  but  there  is  no 
information  that  they  have  ever  produced  commercial  quantities  of  oil.  In  Ventura 
County  the  mark  indicates  that  more  definite  information  was  not  available. 

In  cases  where  unfinished  wells  are  rigged  for  drilling,  the  well  is  noted  as  drilling  if 
work  had  been  done  on  it  within  six  months  previous  to  examination,  as  abandoned  if 
no  work  had  been  done  during  that  period. 

In  preparing  these  maps,  use  has  been  made  of  maps  of  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  and 
E.  D.  Severance,  and  of  the  Central  Oil  Company  of  Los  Angeles,  of  the  Santa  F«'' 
Railroad  at  FuUerton,  and  of  Messrs.  Barlow  and  Hill  of  Bakersfield,  while  thanks  are 
extended  for  much  valuable  information  to  Messrs.  Wm.  Plotts  and  W.  E.  Bacon  of 
Whittier,  and  Mr.  H.  L.  Dort  of  Bakerstiold. 


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22  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

The  Brea  Canon  wells  appear  to  be  on  an  extension  of  the  north 
limb  of  the  anticline,  which  here  approaches  the  surface,  the  south 
limb  being  eroded  away;  this  is  not  certain.  These  wells  are  close  to 
extensive  brea  deposits,  which  follow  the  south  slope  of  Brea  Canon,  and 
naturally  produce  rather  heavy  oil. 

The  oils  of  Fullerton  are  produced  from  beds  of  fine  incoherent  sand, 
the  heavier  oils  raising  considerable  of  it  to  the  surface  at  some  points. 
Extreme  range  of  gravity  is  from  14°  to  35°,  location  of  various  gravi- 
ties being  indicated  on  the  map  herewith.  The  lighter  oils  are  highly 
valuable  for  refining,  the  heavier  are  used  for  fuel;  most  of  the  output 
of  both  kinds  goes  to  Los  Angeles  by  rail,  though  some  of  the  light  oil 
is  piped  to  the  refinery  at  Chino. 

A  branch  of  the  Union  Oil  Company's  pipe-line  to  San  Pedro  enters 
the  field  from  the  Avest,  and  there  are  numerous  pipe-lines  connecting 
various  parts  of  the  field  with  the  railroad.  The  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
has  a  branch  to  Olinda  station,  in  the  field  proper,  from  Richfield, 
distant  four  miles.  The  distance  from  Los  Angeles,  by  railroad,  is 
thirty-five  miles;  to  the  coast  at  Anaheim,  in  a  straight  line,  twenty 
miles. 

STATISTICS.     (December  L3,  1903.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 138 

Number  of  wells  drilling 14 

Number  of  wells  not  producing.     (See  explanatory  note.) 3 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 15 

Approximate  area  producing 1200  acres. 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  35°;  Minimum.  14°;  Average,  22°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel — 

Fuel  oil . - 60  cents. 

Lighter  grades 75c  to$1.7."> 


PUENTE. 

The  Puente  oil  field  is  situated  near  the  southeast  corner  of  Los 
Angeles  County,  the  Avells,  Avhich  are  all  in  one  group,  lying  just  north 
of  the  line  betAveen  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  counties,  and  some  seven 
miles  Avest  of  the  line  between  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 
The  AA'ells  farthest  east  in  the  Puente  group  are  less  than  one  mile 
northAA'est  from  the  Avesternmost  Avells  in  the  Brea  Caiion  extension  of 
the  Fullerton  field. 

The  Avells  in  the  Puente  group  are  scattered  over  an  area  of  nearly 
two  square  miles,  Avell  up  on  the  south  slope  of  the  hill  range  of  the 
same  name,  the  loAvest  wells  being  some  1000  feet  above  sea  level,  the 
highest  some  1250  feet. 

The  geology  of  the  Puente  Hills,  which  include  the  Whittier,  Puente. 
and  Fullerton  oil  districts,  is  described  in  detail  in  Bulletin  19  of  the 


FIGURE  -a. 

[FU[E[N]T[E 

oil—    FIEL.D 

L_OS    ANGELEIS     CO.,   GAL- 
CALIFORNIA  STATE  MININS    BUREAU 

STRTE      f-IIMERAl-OOieT 


RANCHO     L_A    PUEMXE 


NGES  OCO- 


-    oec  IS",  1003-     r-^  e€ 


24  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

California  State  Mining  Bureau.  The  oil-producing  formation  is  of 
Middle  Neocene  age,  and  that  portion  covered  by  the  Puente  wells  is 
of  modified  anticlinal  structure,  somewhat  deformed,  and  productive 
on  both  limbs.  Depth  of  wells  varies  from  1000  to  about  2000  feet, 
according  to  surface  formation,  the  latter  being  very  rough.  The 
bounds  of  the  producing  formation  do  not  seem  to  have  been  certainly 
determined.  It  is  said  that  all  these  wells  are  drilled  only  throvigh 
the  light  oil  sand,  which  lies  above,  and  that  paying  quantities  of 
heavier  oils  are  known  to  exist  at  greater  depths. 

The  oils  of  the  Puente  district  are  produced  from  beds  of  fine  sand, 
interstratified  with  soft  shale.  The  extreme  range  of  gravity  is  from 
18°  to  33°,  location  of  some  of  these  variations  being  indicated  on 
accompanying  map. 

The  wells  in  this  district  belong,  like  the  land,  entirely  to  one 
company,  the  Puente  Oil  Company  of  Los  Angeles,  with  its  two  sub- 
companies,  the  Rowland-Puente  Oil  Company  and  the  Menges  Oil 
Company.  The  entire  product  goes  through  the  private  pipe-line  of  the 
Puente  Oil  Company,  to  that  company's  refinery  at  Chino,  distant 
fifteen  miles.  The  nearest  rail  points  are  Puente,  on  the  Southern 
Pacific,  distant  seven  miles,  and  Olinda,  the  terminus  of  the  Santa  Fe 
branch  into  the  Fullerton  field,  four  and  one  half  miles. 

STATISTICS.     (December  13,  1!M,«.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 7i> 

Number  of  wells  drilling - 0 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 4(?) 

Approximate  area  producing : 2  sq.  ni. 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  .33°;  Minimum,  18°;  Average,  27°  Be. 

Approximate  price  at  wells,  per  barrel None  sold. 


WHITTIER. 

The  Whittier  oil  field  lies  in  the  southeast  portion  of  Los  Angeles 
County,  about  two  miles  north  of  the  south  line,  and  thirteen  miles 
west  of  the  southeast  corner  of  the  county. 

The  Puente  Hills  here  bend  abruptly  to  the  north,  and  terminate  at 
San  Jose  Creek.  The  Whittier  district  lies  on  the  west  slope  of  the 
hills,  the  wells  being  carried  to  a  maximum  elevation  of  1000  feet.  At 
the  foot  of  these  hills  lies  the  pretty  little  town  of  Whittier  (popula- 
tion 1(500),  distant  from  Los  Angeles  (to  the  east)  by  rail  twenty-one 
miles,  by  electric  railroad  eighteen  miles,  or  in  a  straight  line  some 
fourteen  miles.  The  town  lies  on  the  mesa,  at  an  elevation  of  some 
600  feet,  and  is  beautifully  situated  among  orange  and  lemon  groves; 
the  hills  above  the  town  are  very  steep  and  rough,  and  completely 
barren. 


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WHITTIER    OIL    FIELD. 

I.OS  ANGELES  COUNTY,  f'AL. 


KIKLI)    OPKKATIO.NS WIIITTIKR. 


25 


No.    4.       FULLERTON — LOOKING    EasT    FROM    SeC.    8,  3   S.,    9   W 


No.  •').     Whittikk — \\'eli-s  o.\  Ski-.  22,  2  S.,   11   W 


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KIKLI)    OPKKATIONS WIIITTIKR. 


25 


No.    4.       FULLERTON — LOOKING    EaST    FROM    SeC.    8,  3   S.,    9    W 


No.  ■■).     \Vhitt[?:r — Wkli.s  o.n  Ski-.  22,  2  S..   11   W 


26  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

The  geological  formation  is  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  the  producing 
strata  having  the  form  of  a  steeply  tilted  plane,  and  outcropping 
farther  up  the  hills.  The  depth  of  wells  varies  greatly:  from  a  few 
hundred  feet  near  the  line  of  outcrop,  to  twenty-two  hundred  feet  or 
more  in  the  wells  farthest  down  the  dip.  The  productiveness  increases 
rapidly  as  greater  depths  are  reached,  and  on  the  west  the  extension 
of  the  field  is  limited  solely  by  the  difficulty  of  drilling.  To  the  north 
the  field  appears  to  have  reached  its  limits;  to  the  northeast  it  is 
bounded  by  the  cropping  of  the  sands;  to  the  southeast,  though  a  num- 
ber of  failures  have  been  recorded  in  that  direction,  there  appears  to 
be  a  possibility  of  extension. 

The  character  of  the  formation  penetrated  is  principally  hard  con- 
glomerate, with  considerable  water,  and  for  this  reason  drilling  is 
difficult  and  expensive,  requiring  the  heaviest  and  best  rigs  and  machin- 
ery. Oil  is  produced  from  a  hard  sandy  conglomerate,  and  carries  no 
sand.  This  is  probably  the  only  district  of  any  importance  in  the 
State  which  produces  oil  from  a  hard  formation,  though  limited  areas 
in  Ventura  County  have  the  same  characteristic.  The  gravity  of  oil 
produced  varies  somewhat,  principally  with  the  location  of  the  sand 
(of  which  there  are  several  layers)  from  which  the  supply  is  drawn. 
The  superficial  position  of  the  well  on  the  sand  does  not  appear  to 
have  much  influence,  though  the  gravities  are  probably  rising  some- 
what as  drilling  goes  down  the  dip.  A  single  well  produces  an  oil  far 
heavier  than  the  average,  though  surrounded  by  ordinary  wells;  the 
anomaly  does  not  seem  to  have  been  explained. 

The  Union  Oil  Company's  pipe-line  to  the  coast  enters  the  field  at 
the  northAvest,  and  is  connected  to  most  of  the  leases.  Several  com- 
panies at  this  end  of  the  field  also  have  pipe-lines  to  Whittier  station 
on  the  Southern  Pacific,  while  the  two  larger  companies  at  the  south- 
eastern end  have  pipe-lines  to  Los  Nietos  station,  at  the  intersection  of 
the  Santa  Fe  and  the  Southern  Pacific;  distant  from  the  field  about 
three  miles,  from  Los  Angeles  nineteen  miles.  All  the  oil  from  Whit- 
tier, except  that  taken  by  the  Union  Oil  Company's  pipe-line,  goes  to 
Los  Angeles,  where  the  larger  part  is  refined. 

STATISTICS.     (December  10,  1903.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 99 

Number  of  wells  drilling . 6 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value  .- 4 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 46 

Approximate  area  producing 1.5  sq.  m. 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  24°;  Minimum,  14°;  Average,  19°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 60  cents. 


•27 


■■i      T 

I —  «  I     I   ' 


FIELD    OPERATIONS — LOS    ANGELES.  27 


LOS  ANGELES  CITY  FIELD. 


The  City  field  of  Los  Angeles  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is  situated,  not 
merely  within  the  eity  limits,  but  in  a  thickly  settled  residence  district. 
Los  Angeles  is  built  on  low.  rolling  hills,  and  over  these  hills  the  oil 
field  stretches  in  a  strij)  over  three  miles  long,  varying  in  width  from 
one  fourth  to  three  fourths  of  a  mile,  I'unning  a  little  north  of  east  and 
south  of  west,  through  the  northwestern  part  of  the  city. 

The  geological  formation  is  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  and  has  the  form 
of  a  Hat  anticline,  though  somewhat  broken.  At  the  western  end  the 
sands  approach  the  surface,  some  wells  here  being  as  little  as  300  feet 
in  dejith;  still  farther  west  the  sands  crop.  At  the  eastern  end  the 
greatest  depth  is  some  1500  feet,  the  average  being  one  or  two  hundred 
feet  less;  this  end  of  the  field  is  cut  off  abruptly,  apparently  by  a  fault. 
The  production  is  greater  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  field,  and  the  oil 
lighter,  though  in  all  parts  of  the  field  the  product  is  a  heavy  oil.  The 
l)roduction  per  day  per  well  is  very  small,  even  in  the  best  wells,  prob- 
ably owing  to  the  excessive  crowding.  Oil  is  produced  from  incoherent 
sand  interstratified  with  clay,  and  many  of  the  wells  pump  consider- 
able sand  and  water. 

Owing  to  the  location  of  the  field  in  the  midst  of  a  large  city,  there 
are  no  pipe-lines  of  any  length,  nor  do  the  railroads  touch  the  field 
•  lirectly  at  any  point.  The  oil  is  used  locally,  principally  for  fuel,  and 
is  delivered  by  tank  wagon. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wells  in  the  City  field  are  pumped  on  the 
jack,  the  wells  of  several  owners  often  being  handled  from   one  power. 

STATISTICS.     (December  lU,  liWH.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 5*79 

Number  of  wells  drilling -.-- 14 

Number  of  wells  not  producing tw 

Number  of  wells  abandoned "1 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  16°;  ^lininuini.  11°;  Average,  13.5°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel - 70  cents. 


FIKM)    OI'EHATIONS — LOS    ANGELES.  27 


LOS  ANGELES  CITY  FIELD. 


Tlie  City  Held  of  Los  Angeli's  is  pi'cnliaf  in  that  it  is  situated,  not 
merely  within  the  eity  limits,  hut  in  a  thickly  settled  residence  district. 
Los  Angi'les  is  huilt  on  low,  rolling  hills,  and  over  these  hills  the  oil 
tield  stretches  in  a  strij)  over  three  miles  long,  varying  in  width  from 
one  fourth  to  three  fourths  of  a  mile,  running  a  little  north  of  east  and 
south  of  west,  through  the  northwestern  part  of  the  city. 

The  geological  formation  is  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  and  has  the  form 
of  a  flat  anticline,  though  somewhat  broken.  At  the  western  end  the 
sands  approach  tlie  surface,  some  wells  here  being  as  little  as  300  feet 
in  depth;  still  farther  west  the  sands  crop.  At  the  eastern  end  the 
greatest  depth  is  some  1500  feet,  the  average  being  one  or  two  hundred 
feet  less;  this  end  of  the  field  is  cut  off  abruptly,  ai)parently  by  a  fault. 
The  production  is  greater  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  tield,  and  the  oil 
lighter,  though  in  all  parts  of  the  field  the  product  is  a  heavy  oil.  The 
])roduction  per  day  per  ^vell  is  very  small,  even  in  the  best  wells,  i)rob- 
ably  owing  to  the  excessive  crowding.  Oil  is  produced  from  incoherent 
sand  interstratified  with  clay,  and  many  of  the  wells  pump  consider- 
able sand  and  Avater. 

Owing  to  the  location  of  the  field  in  the  midst  of  a  large  city,  there 
are  no  pipe-lines  of  any  length,  nor  do  the  railroads  touch  the  field 
directly  at  any  point.  The  oil  is  used  locally,  principally  for  fuel,  and 
is  delivered  by  tank  wagon. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wells  in  the  City  field  are  pumped  on  the 
jack,  the  wells  of  several  owners  often  being  handled  from   one  })ower. 

STATISTICS.     (Deceiuber  10,  IWM.) 

Number  of  wells  producing . !>79 

Number  of  wells  drilling -. 14 

Number  of  wells  not  producing tM.> 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 71 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  ltj°;  Minimum,  11°;  Average,  13.5°  Be. 

Approximate  [>resent  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 70  cents. 


Fig.  7.     Eastern  portion  of  Newliall  Oil  Field,  Los  Angeles  County,  Cal. 


FIELD    orKKATlONS — NEWHALL.  29 


NEWHALL. 


The  Newhall  oil  field,  or  properly  group  of  fields,  lies  in  the  western 
portion  of  Los  Angeles  County,  being  some  ten  miles  east  of  the  Ventura 
county  line,  and  some  twenty-five  miles  northwest  of  Los  Angeles  city. 

The  wells  in  the  Xewhall  district  are  situated  in  several  canons  in 
the  higher  part  of  the  San  Fernando  Mountains,  the  elevation  ranging 
from  1300  to  1700  feet.  The  town  of  Newhall,  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad,  distant  thirty  miles  from  Los  Angeles,  occupies  a  small  area 
of  flat  land  in  the  center  of  this  territory. 

The  wells  in  Pico  Caiion,  belonging  to  the  Pacific  Coast  Oil  Comj)any, 
are  some  six  miles  due  west  of  Xewhall.  They  are  in  a  very  rough, 
hilly  country,  vary  in  depth  from  700  to  950  feet,  and  produce  an  oil  of 
some  41°  gravity  from  sandstone  streaked  with  shale.  (Bulletin  19, 
California  State  Mining  Bureau.) 

There  are  also  a  few  wells,  belonging  to  the  same  parties,  in  Wiley 
Caiion,  about  three  miles  southwest  of  Newhall.  These  wells  range 
in  depth  from  600  to  1600  feet,  and  produce  an  oil  of  about  30°,  from 
shale  and  sandstone.     (Bulletin  19,  California  State  Mining  Bureau.) 

In  Placeritas  Caiion,  some  four  miles  due  east  of  Newhall,  there  were 
at  one  time  several  wells  producing  a  light  oil  from  conglomerate,  shale, 
and  crushed  granite.  The  wells  proved  to  be  short  lived,  and  there  is 
said  to  be  no  production  whatever  from  this  district,  at  the  present  time. 

In  Elsmere  Canon  and  on  the  hills  to  the  southwest,  there  are  a 
number  of  wells  producing  heavy  black  oil  (from  14°  to  16°)  from 
coarse  sand  and  fine  gravel.  The  depth  of  these  Avells  ranges  from  400 
to  1000  feet.     These  wells  are  some  three  miles  southeast  of  Newhall. 

The  Newhall  field  derives  its  principal  importance  from  the  old  wells 
in  Pico  Canon,  and  from  these  principally  because  of  their  age  and  of 
the  high  gravity  of  their  product.  The  production  over  this  entire 
district  is  small.  From  Pico  and  Wiley  canons  the  oil  is  taken  into 
the  Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company's  pipe-line,  running  east  to  the  ocean  at 
Ventura,  through  the  Santa  Clara  Valley.  The  oil  from  Elsmere  and 
vicinity  goes  through  a  pipe-line  to  the  railroad  near  Newhall  station, 
and  from  thence  to  Los  Angeles  by  rail. 

Most  of  the  wells  in  all  parts  of  the  Newhall  field  are  ])umped  by 

means  of  the  jack. 

STATISTICS.     (December  20,  1903.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 55 

Number  of  wells  drilling 3 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value 6 

Number  of  wells  abandoned --- -  31 

Approximate  area  producing 1.4  sq.  m. 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  41°;  Minimum,  12°;  Average,  25°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel --   None  sold. 


30 


rE'l'HOLKr.M     IN    (ALIKdKMA. 


No.  (i.     Los  Angeles  City — East  E.m> 


Xf).  7.     Xewhall — LnoKiXG  North  from  Sec.  13,  3  X.,  1(>  W. 


1' 1 1: 1 . 1 1  (I I •  !•: i ; A  r  1  () N >  —  \ i; w  1 1  a i . i . 


81 


No.  8.    Newhall — Pico  Canon  Wells 


No.  ii.     Newhall — Pico  CaSon  Well: 


3— BUL.  32 


32  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


SUMMERLAND. 


The  Sumnierland  oil  field  is  situated  on  the  sliore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
six  miles  southeast  of  Santa  Barbara,  and  in  the  county  of  the  same 
name. 

The  wells  are,  for  the  most  part,  directly  along  the  shore  line,  both 
on  the  beach  itself  and  on  a  low  bank  of  clay  back  of  it.  Many,  how- 
ever, have  been  sunk  farther  out  than  low  tide,  from  light  wharves,  and 
there  are  also  a  fcAV  farther  back,  in  the  town. 

The  oils  of  this  district  are  produced  from  loose  sands,  interstratified 
with  clay,  of  Middle  Neocene  age.  Depths  vary  from  150  to  oOO  feet, 
though  there  are  a  few  deeper,  one  being  600  feet.  Two  holes  of  greatei- 
depth  have  been  drilled,  on  the  north  side  of  the  field,  in  the  attem})t 
to  find  a  lower  sand,  but  these  wells  are  not  productive.  The  dip  of 
the  sand  follows,  in  a  general  way,  that  of  the  ocean  bottom,  and  the 
deeper  wells  are  the  better  producers,  giving  also  a  rather  lighter  oil. 
The  difference  in  gravity,  however,  is  small,  the  range  being  not  greater 
than  from  10.5°  to  15.5°.  Most  of  the  wells,  the  shallower  ones  more 
particularly,  raise  a  good  deal  of  sand  and  water. 

The  bounds  of  the  field  have  been  determined  on  all  sides,  and  in 
fact  have  contracted  considerably  during  the  last  two  years.  As  may 
be  seen  from  the  accompanying  map,  very  few  wells  are  being  pumped 
on  the  town  side  of  the  railroad,  and  a  number  of  plants  are  idle  at 
the  eastern  end  of  the  field.  At  one  time  there  was  considerable  gas 
from  these  sands,  and  a  number  of  wells  were  sunk  for  gas  alone,  but 
the  production  has  now  fallen  very  low,  the  pressure  being  so  light  that, 
it  is  said,  the  flow  ceases  with  any  considerable  rise  in  the  barometer. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  oil  from  this  district  is  used  by  the 
local  refinery,  in  the  manufacture  of  asphalt,  this  oil  being  particularly 
suitable  for  this  use.  The  balance  goes  to  Santa  Barl)ara.  l)y  rail,  for 
fuel.  At  Serena,  distant  about  one  mile,  there  is  a  wliarf  running  out 
to  deep  w^ater,  but  this  is  rarely  used. 

All  the  wells  at  Summerland  are  pum})ed  on  tlie  jack. 

STATISTICS.     (December  24,  19()3.) 

Number  of  wells  i)roducing 198 

Number  of  wells  drilling (• 

Number  of  wells  not  producing 114 

Number  of  wells  abandoned l(Kj 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  15.5°;  Minimum,  10.5°:  Average,  14°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 80  cents. 


FiGORE   8. 

SUMMERLAND  OIL  f lELD 

Santa  Barbara  Co.,  Cal. 

IBSUBD  BY  THE 

STATE    MINING    BUREAU 

LEWIS   B.    AUBURY 
State  Mineralogist 


FIELD    ()I'Kl{ATIONS SIMMKHLANO. 


33 


No.  10.   SUMMERLANU — FrOM  THE  OcEAN. 


Xo.  11.   SUMMEKLAMI — FkO.M  THE  ShOKE. 


.8  aaooi'i 

aj3ii  Jio  Q»iAJ93niiya 

.jaO  ,.oO  AHAaaAS  atviaS 

aHT  Yf; 


YfluauA  .a  aiw3j 


or^io/^^ 


FJKIJ)    OPKHATIONS Sl'.MMKHLA  N  I>. 


33 


N".   III.     MM  Mi:i;i,  \  \  ii     li:i>M  niE  Ocean. 


No.    11.      Su.M.MEKI,A.\"li— FkOM    THE   SHORE. 


34 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


No.  12.     Kerx  Rivek — LooKixci  Xokth  ki;om  Hkc.  5,  '2U  S.,  28  K. 


iTtjf-tv,'.-'  '..rt 


No.  l.'J.     Kekx  IlivEu — Looking  Sorxn  from  Center  op"  Section  32. 


RANGE 


11 


■9 


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00 
QJ 

T" 

I 
I/) 

z 


23 


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35 


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z 


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FIELD    OPEKATIONS KKliN     HIVKIt. 


85 


KERN  RIVER. 

The  Kern  River  oil  field,  by  far 
the  most  important  in  the  State 
in  point  of  })roduetion,  is  situated 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  Kern 
County,  and  at  the  eastern  margin 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

The  producing  wells  cover  an 
area  about  three  and  one  half 
miles  square,  in  the  low  foothills 
of  the  Greenhorn  Mountains,  tlie 
latter  a  spur  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Kern  River,  a  shallow  tributary 
of  the  San  Joaquin  River,  follows, 
and  in  a  sense  forms,  the  southern 
l)oundary  of  the  field.  The  river 
banks  here  have  an  altitude  of 
al)Out  450  feet,  while  north  the 
hills  reach  a  maximum  height  of 
about  950  feet.  The  nearest  town 
of  any  importance  is  Bakersfield, 
distant  three  miles  in  a  straight 
line,  but  eleven  miles  by  railroad. 
The  oil-producing  formation  is  ex- 
tremely regular,  in  shape  approxi- 
mating tliat  of  a  flat  saucer, 
inverted,  and  with  its  eastern  rim 
somewhat  raised.  Depth  of  wells 
varies  from  600  to  1200  feet,  being 
least  at  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
field,  and  greatest  at  the  western. 
The  oil  is  produced  from  beds  of 
incoherent  sand,  alternating  with 
clay  and  shale  streaks,  both  of 
which  are  remarkably  persistent, 
over  the  entire  producing  area. 
The  greatest  thickness  of  paying 
sand  is  at  the  center  of  the  field, 
where  the  net  sand  averages  850 
feet;  toward  the  edges  the  sand 
thins  out,  the  percentage  of  sat- 
uration falls,  and  the  gravity  of 
the     oil     lowers    somewhat.     The 


^VS    i    J=ic)HM9S 


I 


KlEl.D    OrEKATIOXS 1 


85 


KERN  RIVER. 

The  Kern  River  oil  field,  by  far 
the  most  important  in  the  State 
ill  point  of  production,  is  situated 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  Kern 
County,  and  at  the  eastern  martrin 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

The  produeing  wells  cover  an 
area  about  three  and  one  half 
miles  square,  in  the  low  foothills 
of  the  Greenhorn  Mountains,  tlie 
latter  a  spur  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Kern  River,  a  shallow  tril)utary 
of  the  San  Joaquin  River,  follows, 
and  in  a  sense  forms,  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  field.  The  river 
banks  lierc  have  an  altitude  of 
about  450  feet,  while  north  the 
hills  reach  a  maximum  height  of 
about  950  feet.  The  nearest  town 
of  any  importance  is  Bakersfield, 
distant  three  miles  in  a  straight 
line,  but  eleven  miles  by  railroad. 
The  oil-producing  formation  is  ex- 
tremely regular,  in  shape  approxi- 
mating that  of  a  flat  saucer, 
inverted,  and  with  its  eastern  rim 
somewhat  raised.  Depth  of  wells 
varies  from  600  to  1200  feet,  being 
least  at  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
field,  and  greatest  at  the  western. 
The  oil  is  produced  from  beds  of 
incoherent  sand,  alternating  with 
clay  and  shale  streaks,  both  of 
which  are  remarkably  persistent, 
over  the  entire  producing  area. 
The  greatest  thickness  of  paying 
sand  is  at  the  center  of  the  field, 
where  the  net  sand  averages  850 
feet;  toward  the  edges  the  sand 
tliins  out,  the  percentage  of  sat- 
uration falls,  and  the  gravity  of 
tlie     oil     lowers    somewhat.     The 


36  PETROLEUM  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

bounds  of  the  Kern  River  Held  have  been  definitely  determined  in 
all  directions. 

The  gravity  of  oil  produced  over  this  area  is  remarkably  uniform, 
the  variation  being  from  11.8°  to  17.0°,  with  the  exception  of  a  single 
well  producing  oil  of  10.5°.  In  general,  the  lighter  oil  is  in  the  upper, 
though  not  the  uppermost,  sands,  while  at  the  bottom  a  thin  stratum 
carries  a  very  heavy  oil;  water  sands  are  found  both  above  and  below 
the  oil.  Aside  from  the  oil  converted  into  asphalt  and  crude  distillate 
by  the  seven  local  refineries,  the  entire  output  of  this  field  is  used  for 
fuel,  principally  at  or  near  San  Francisco. 

The  Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company  has  an  eight-inch  pipe-line  connect- 
ing the  Kern  River  field  with  Point  Richmond,  a  station  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  distant  from  San  Francisco  nine  miles  by 
water,  and  from  Kern  River  two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  miles. 
This  line  is  not  at  present  in  operation.  There  are  numerous  pipe-lines 
connecting  all  parts  of  the  field  with  the  railroad  and  the  refineries.  A 
railroad  spur,  used  jointly  by  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Santa  Fe. 
extends  from  Bakersfield,  a  distance  of  some  fourteen  miles,  making 
the  distance  by  rail  to  San  Francisco  some  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  miles,  and  to  Los  Angeles  some  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles. 
The  distance  from  tide  water  is  about  one  hundred  miles  in  a  straight 
line,  but  considerable  rough  mountain  country  intervenes,  and  there  is 
no  present  outlet  in  that  direction. 

In  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  field,  where  the  wells  are  shallow, 
and  the  production  per  well  is  comparatively  light,  many  wells  are 
being  jacked,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  field  practically  all  wells  pump 
on  the  beam.  The  oils  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  field  raise  great  quan- 
tities of  sand,  making  frequent  cleaning  necessary. 

STATISTICS.     (December  2.  liA«.) 

Xuiul)er  of  wells  produeiiig 7!Hj 

Number  of  wells  drilling H4 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value —  IH 

Number  of  wells  abandoned -.-  US 

Approximate  area  producing 9  sq.  lu. 

Gravity  of  oil Maxinmni,  17.0°;  Minimum,  11.8°;  Average,  15.5°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 21  cents 


FIELD    OPERATIONS — KKHN    RIVER. 


No.  15.     Loading  a  Tank  Steamer. 


No.  Ki.     Oil  Tanks  at  Kern  River,  in  Course  of  CoNSTRUCTroN. 
Capacity,  'Ar>,{_m  l)bls.  each. 


No.  17.     Tank  Cars.     (Cajiacity.  1.">0  an.l  :'.()0  bbls.) 


38  PEXrxOLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

SUNSET. 

The  Sunset  oil  field  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  Kern 
County,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  tlie  Coast  Range  Mountains,  and  at 
the  western  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Tlie  wells  lie  on  the  lower  foothills  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  extend 
out  on  tlie  mesa  at  their  hase,  where  are  located  the  stations  Pioneer  and 
Maricopa,  and  railroad  station  called  Sunset.  Th"  elevation  at  Pioneer 
is  750  feet,  and  the  wells  rise  to  the  maximum  height  of  1025  feet. 

The  formation  is  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  and  is  in  form  an  inclined 
plane,  following  the  dip  of  the  surface,  in  general.  De})th  of  wells 
varies  from  550  to  1000  feet,  according  to  surface  confori)iation.  and  to 
position  on  the  dip;  the  average  depth  would  fall  below  750  feet.  The 
■producing  strip  is  a  very  narrow  one,  and  appears  to  have  been  deter- 
mined on  all  sides,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  southeast  corner. 

The  oils  of  Sunset  are  produced  from  beds  of  incoherent  sand,  vary- 
ing from  moderately  line  to  very  coarse.  In  different  parts  of  the  field 
the  gas  pressure  is  high,  and  many  wells  flow  when  allowed  to  do  so, 
raising  quantities  of  sand  where  the  latter  is  fine.  Most  of  the  wells 
penetrate  the  upper  sand  only,  but  a  few  reach  a  good  second  sand, 
lately  discovered;  this  second  sand  has  been  proven  in  but  one  i)ortion 
of  the  field.  The  extreme  range  of  gravity  is  from  17°  to  10.5^;  the 
heaviest  oil  being  from  the  extreme  south,  near  the  outcrop  of  the  sands; 
the  lightest  from  the  group  of  wells  on  the  mesa,  near  the  center  of  the 
field,  and  a  medium  oil  from  all  parts  north.  The  average  gravity  is 
not  far  from  14°.  All  the  oil  produced  is  used  for  fuel,  except  that 
converted  into  asphalt  and  distillate  b}^  the  refinery  near  Pioneer.  On 
account  of  lack  of  transportation  facilities,  very  little  oil  is  being  or  has 
been  produced  except  from  wells  close  to  the  railroad. 

A  spur  used  jointly  by  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Santa  Fe  extends 
from  Bakersfield  to  Sunset,  a  distance  of  forty-one  miles,  and  is  now 
being  extended  to  ]\laricopa,  three  miles  farther  north.  A  })i}te-linc 
is  also  being  laid  from  the  northern  part  of  the  field  to  the  railroad. 
There  are  two  or  three  short  pipe-lines  to  the  railroad  from  nearby 
wells,  but  the  greater  ])art  of  the  field  is  without  any  i)resent  means  for 
getting  out  its  product. 

All  the  wells  at  Sunset  are  riggt'd  for  l)eam  pum})ing. 

STATISTICS.     (December  12,  1908.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 102 

Number  of  wells  drilling. _. 6 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value ._. -_-  8 

Number  of  wells  abandonetl -- --   ---  62 

Approximate  area  producing 4.2  sq.  m. 

Gravity  of  oil Maxiiiuun,  17°;  Minimum,  l(i..'>°  ;  Average,  14°  Be. 

Api)ro.\imate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel — 

17°  oil 25  cents. 

14°  oil 21  cents. 


.s> 


32 


_10. 

IL  FIELD 

CALIFORNIA 

ma  BUREAU 

TATE    JIlNERALOGIST 

/.  PRUTZMAX. 


5 

3 

8 

9 

17 

7 

> 

16 

1 
I 

7 

> 
> 

20 

Producing  Welu 
PtdANDONED  Wnu 
Wells  of  oouBTr 

Small  r/Gut 

PHODUCED    AT 

21 

W 

•  -     2S 
^ 

j 

/  . 


FlGOEE   10. 

SUNSET  OIL  FIEI^D 

KERN  COUNTY,  CALIFORNIA 


THE  STATE  MINING  BUEEAU 

LEWIS  E.  AUBURY,  State  Mineralogist 


FIELD   OrERATIONS — SUNSET. 


39 


No.  IS.     i^iNSET — LooKixu  North  from  Skc  i:;,  11  N.,  '2i  W 


No.    l!t.       M-.VSET— LoflKINi;    ^OITII     F!;<iM     1;m1.I;"AIi    1»I.|-')I. 


cc 


:•_ ii 


Q. 


a  A'5  0^\\ 


iXO  "Vfo 


FIELD    OrEKATIONS — SUMSET. 


39 


No.  18.     SuxsET — Looking  North  from  Skc.   !■">,  11  N.,  24  W. 


No.    l!t.      M-NSF.T— I>rioKIN<i    >OrTl[    Flt'iM    K\Il.l:i>\Ii    l»l.l-')l. 


40  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


MIDWAY. 

Tlie  Midway  oil  tivUl  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  })orti()n  of  Kern 
County,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  Mountains,  and  at  the 
western  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

The  Midway  wells  form  a  narrow  line,  almost  straight,  from  a  point 
about  one  half  mile  north  of  the  northernmost  Sunset  well,  extending 
nortiiwest  for  some  six  miles.  The  j)rodueing  strip  does  not  ai)pear  to 
be  anywhere  more  than  one  mile  in  width. 

The  formation  is  ])robably  of  the  same  age  as  that  of  Sunset  and 
McKittrick,  /.  e.,  Middle  Neocene,  but  drilling  records  are  too  incomplete 
to  give  much  idea  as  to  its  form,  or  to  determine  the  conditions  which 
limit  its  productive  area.  It  is  prol)a])le,  however,  that  it  is  generally 
flat,  and  follows  the  dip  of  the  surface,  as  the  wells  farthest  to  the  west 
have,  in  several  cases,  found  the  oil  sand  in  place  l)ut  unjjroductive, 
while  on  the  extreme  east  the  oil  sand  has  given  place  to  a  water  sand. 
The  boundaries  of  the  producing  ground  seem  to  be  fairly  well  marked 
out,  but  much  of  the  intervening  territory  is  undeveloped,  though  the 
work  thus  far  done  would  give  the  impression  that  it  is  spotty.  Depth 
of  wells  runs  from  600  to  1500  feet,  the  average  being  probably  over 
1000  feet.     The  surface  elevation  ranges  from  800  to  1200  feet. 

The  oils  of  the  Midway  are  produced  from  beds  of  incoherent  sand, 
principally  of  a  coarse  texture.  The  gravities  range  from  14°  to  22°, 
averaging  somewhere  about  16°.  Some  of  the  locations  at  which  these 
different  gravities  have  been  found  are  noted  on  accompanying  map; 
the  principles  governing  these  variations  have  not  been  established. 

The  Midway  district  is  without  transportation  facilities  of  any  kind, 
supplies  being  brought  in  from  either  McKittrick  or  Sunset.  For  this 
reason,  practically  no  oil  has  been  actually  produced,  most  of  the  wells 
capable  of  producing  having  been  capped.  It  is,  therefore,  not  alto- 
gether certain  what  the  field  will  do  when  opened  up,  although  pumping 
tests  would  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  some  very  good  territory.  A 
pipe-line  is  now  being  laid  from  Sunset  into  the  southern  end  of  the 
field. 

STATISTICS.     (December  13,  1903.) 

X limber  of  wells  producing 24 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value 7 

Number  of  wells  drilling 6 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 36 

Approximate  area  producing 2  sq.  m . 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  22°;  Minimum,  14°;  Average,  16°  Be. 

Approximate  piesent  price  at  wells,  per  barrel None  sold. 


't 


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RANGE     £ 


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g£ 


FlQUKE    11. 

M  low  AY    OIL    FIELD 

KERN   COUNTY,   CALIFORNIA 

ISSUED  BY  THE  STATE   MINING  BUREAU 

LEWIS  E.  AUBURY,  State  Minkralogist 

[■..MPII.BD  BV  PAUL  \V.  PRUTZMAN 

Producing  tt^sus  •  PVfiiJ  DRlLLlNS         o 

abanoonco  Wells  -i^  Oil    tunks  % 

>y€LLS  or  DOUBTFUL  PROaUCTIVeNCSS         e  Oil    FIFE  LINES 

S/^ALi  FIGURES 


2 


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FIKI.D    OI'KKATIONS m'kITTRICK.  41 

McKITTRICK. 

Tlie  IMcKit trick  oil  i\v\d  is  in  the  western  i)()rtion  of  Kern  County, 
about  six  miles  east  of  the  San  T.uis  ()l)is|)o  county  line,  on  the  east 
slo})e  of  the  Coast  Ranuc  Mountains,  and  on  thewi'st  side  of  tlie  San 
.Ioa(iuin  Valley. 

The  town  of  McKittrick  lies  in  a  Hat  valley  of  the  wiilth  t)f  some 
two  miles,  and  hoiuuled  Ity  hill  i-an^es  of  no  <ireat  heitiht,  with  a  due 
northwest  and  southeast  trend.  On  the  hills  to  the  southwest  lie  the 
])rincipal  developments,  following  the  liiu'  of  the  valley  for  three  miles. 
About  midway  between  the  town  and  the  head  of  the  valley  a  gi'oup  of 
wells  has  been  ilrilled  in  the  mesa,  while  on  the  south  sloi)e  of  the 
north  hill  range  some  oil  has  been  obtained,  though  not  in  j)aying 
(juantities.  The  town  is  at  an  elevation  of  1114  feet,  the  highest  wells 
1400  feet. 

The  fornuition  is  of  Middle  Neocent;  age,  Init  its  slnqx'  lias  not  been 
determined  with  certainty.  It  is  probable  that  the  parallel  hill  ranges, 
which  are  remarkal)ly  regular  and  persistent,  are  of  antiidinal  forma- 
tion; but  such  anticlines,  if  they  exist,  are  certainly  much  faulted,  and 
the  productiveness  seems  to  be  largely  determined  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  these  breaks.  As  will  be  readily  seen,  on  examination  of 
the  map  herewith,  the  tield  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  and  proven  to 
be  very  "  spotty,"  a  condition  readily  explained  by  the  highly  broken 
condition  of  the  surface,  and  the  numerous  seepages  and  evidences  of 
chemical  action.  Nevertheless,  the  productive  portions  of  the  field 
have  proven  highly  valuable,  on  account  of  the  large  production  })er 
well.     Depth  of  wells  varies  from  400  or  500  feet  to  nearly  2000  feet. 

The  oils  of  McKittrick  vary  in  gravity  from  14°  to  19"^,  the  lighter 
oil  being  found  entirely  at  the  southern  end.  In  several  cases  light  oil 
and  heavy  oil  are  found  in  closely  adjacent  wells,  and  the  variation  in 
gravity  in  so  short  a  distance  is  not  readily  explained.  All  the  oil 
from  this  field  is  used  for  fuel. 

A  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  connects  the  town  of 
McKittrick  with  Bakersfield,  distant  forty-eight  miles,  and  extends  two 
miles  farther  up  the  valley,  to  Olig  station.  There  are  numerous  pipe- 
lines connecting  various  properties  with  the  railroad,  and  with  the 
Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company  and  Southern  Pacific  Company  tanks,  but 
no  outside  pipe-line  connection. 

The  wells  on  Sections  20  and  29  are  pum})ed  on  the  jack  in  large 
part,  but  north  of  this  line  practically  everything  is  i)uniped  on  the 
l)eam. 

STATISTICS.     (December  14,  liM.i.) 

Number  of  wells  producing 7r> 

Number  of  weUa  drilling - 11 

Number  of  wells  not  producing 2.t 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 50 

Approximate  area  producing 940  acres . 

Gravity  of  oil Maxinuim,  19°;  Minimum,  14°  ;  Average,  16°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 21  cents. 


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FIELD    OPKKATIONS m'kITTRICK.  41 

McKITTRICK. 

The  Mc'Kittrick  oil  tickl  is  in  the  wi'stiTii  portion  of  Kern  County, 
:il)out  six  miles  east  of  the  San  T.uis  Obispo  county  line,  on  the  east 
slo})e  of  the  Coast  Range  Mountains,  and  on  tlic  west  side  of  the  San 
.Ioa(iuin  Valley. 

The  town  of  McKittrick  lies  in  a  Hat  valley  of  the  widtii  of  some 
two  miles,  and  l)ounded  l»y  hill  ranjies  of  no  <ireat  lu'ight,  with  a  due 
northwest  and  southeast  trend.  On  the  hills  to  the  southwest  lie  the 
]>rineipal  develoj)nients,  following  the  liiu'  of  tlu'  valley  for  three  miles. 
Al)o\U  midway  between  the  town  and  tiie  head  of  the  valley  a  uroup  of 
wells  has  l)een  drilled  in  the  mesa,  while  on  the  south  sloi)e  of  the 
north  hill  range  some  oil  has  been  obtained,  though  not  in  paying 
i|uantities.  The  town  is  at  an  elevation  of  1114  feet,  the  highest  wells 
1400  feet. 

The  formation  is  of  Middle  Neocene  age,  Init  its  shape  has  not  been 
determined  with  certainty.  It  is  probable  that  the  parallel  hill  ranges, 
which  are  renuirkably  regular  and  persistent,  are  of  anticlinal  forma- 
tion; but  such  anticlines,  if  they  exist,  are  certainly  nuieh  faulted,  and 
the  productiveness  seems  to  be  largely  determined  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  these  breaks.  As  will  be  readily  seen,  on  examination  of 
the  map  herewith,  the  field  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  and  proven  to 
be  very  "  spotty,"  a  condition  readily  explained  by  the  highly  broken 
condition  of  the  surface,  and  the  numerous  see})ages  and  evidences  of 
chemical  action.  Nevertheless,  the  productive  portions  of  the  field 
have  proven  highly  valuable,  on  account  of  the  large  production  per 
well.     Depth  of  wells  varies  from  400  or  500  feet  to  nearly  2000  feet. 

The  oils  of  McKittrick  vary  in  gravity  from  14°  to  19*^,  the  lighter 
oil  being  found  entirely  at  the  southern  end.  In  several  cases  light  oil 
and  heavy  oil  are  found  in  closely  adjacent  wells,  and  the  variation  in 
gravity  in  so  short  a  distance  is  not  readily  explained.  All  the  oil 
from  this  field  is  used  for  fuel. 

A  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  connects  the  town  of 
McKittrick  with  Bakerstield,  distant  forty-eight  miles,  and  extends  two 
miles  farther  up  the  valley,  to  Olig  station.  There  are  numerous  pipe- 
lines connecting  various  properties  with  the  railroad,  and  with  the 
Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company  and  Southern  Pacific  Company  tanks,  but 
no  outside  pipe-line  connection. 

The  Avells  on  Sections  20  and  29  are  puni})ed  on  the  jack  in  large 
part,  but  north  of  this  line  practically  everything  is  i)umi)ed  on  the 
beam. 

STATISTICS.     (December  14,  lfXi;i) 

Xuniber  of  wells  producing T'l 

Number  of  wellts  drilling - 11 

Number  of  wells  not  producing.-. 2.5 

Number  of  wells  abandoned - 50 

Approximate  area  producing 940  acres . 

Gravity  of  oil -  Maximum,  19°;  Minimum,  14°;  Average,  16°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 21  cents. 


42 


PETROLKlWr    IN    ('ArJKORMA. 


Nil.  L'n.     McKiTTRicK  —  Looking  Soitheast  fkom  Sec.   lit,  80  S.,  ■22  K. 


No.  21.     CoAMNGA — Oil  City  Groip. 


fRF\ 


Id 


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35 


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FIKI.D    OPERATIONS COALINOA.  43 

COALINGA. 

The  Coalin^a  oil  Ik'M  lies  al  tlic  eastern  educ  of  the  footliills  of  the 
Coast  Range,  and  on  the  western  l)onn(hiry  of  the  San  .Ioa(|uin  \'alk'y, 
in  Fresno  County. 

Tlie  viHage  of  Coalinga  is  situated  on  the  mesa,  at  an  elevation  of 
(i(io  feet;  the  developed  field  lies  west  and  north  of  the  town,  at  a  dis- 
tance ranging  from  four  to  eight  miles.  The  hills  gradually  increase 
in  height  and  grow  rougher  toward  the  north,  ranging  from  <S00  oi-  V)00 
feet  at  the  extreme  south,  to  1000  feet  on  See.  31,  1200-1400  feet  on 
Sees.  28  and  22,  and  1500-1550  feet  on  Sec.  20,  all  in  T.  19  S.,  U.  15  E. 

The  depth  of  wells  varies  from  (lOO  feet  to  ovvy  2000  feet,  according 
to  ])osition  on  dip  of  producing  sand.  Two  entirely  distinct  formations 
furnish  oil  in  this  territory.  One,  following  the  edge  of  the  hills  in  a 
crescent  shape,  dips  genth'  to  the  east  and  southeast,  and  has  heen  })ro- 
duetive  over  the  greater  part  of  the  length  of  the  field.  This  formation 
is  })rol)ahly  of  ^liddle  Neocene  age,  and  furnishes  ])laek  oil  from  l)eds 
of  incoherent  sand.  The  productive  limits  of  this  formation  to  tin- 
east  do  not  appear  to  have  heen  reached,  hut  to  the  west  of  producing 
territory  the  sands  outcrop  at  a  number  of  points,  and  extension  in 
this  direction  is  improbable.  An  entirely  distinct  formation  produces 
oil  in  the  Oil  City  district,  on  Sec.  20-19-15,  the  producing  strata  being 
of  Eocene  age.  These  strata  dip  sharply  to  the  southeast,  and  furnish 
a  green  oil  from  thin  layers  of  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  This  pool 
has  been  clearly  defined  on  all  sides. 

The  oils  produced  in  the  Coalinga  field  vary  greatly  in  quality.  That 
from  the  Oil  City  pool  is  of  a  clear  green  color,  and  33°  gravity.  In  the 
northeast  portion  of  the  field,  in  Sees.  21,  22,  and  28,  an  oil  of  2(i°  to 
28°  gravity  is  found  in  the  U})per  sand,  and  an  oil  of  20°  to  22°  below 
it.  On  Sec.  31  the  oil  is  from  16°  to  18°,  growing  lighter  down  the  dip 
of  the  sand,  l)ut  falling  in  gravity  as  the  formation  is  followed  south, 
to  12°  on  Sec.  26,  and  18°  on  Sec.  24-20-14.  Prol)ably  more  than  half 
of  the  oil  produced  in  Coalinga  is  refined. 

The  field  is  served  by  a  l)raneh  of  the  Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company's 
pipe-line  to  Point  Richmond,  which  reaches  all  parts  of  the  field. 
There  are  also  five  pipe-lines  from  various  parts  of  tlie  field  to  the 
railroad  at  Oro  station.  A  l)ranch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad, 
terminating  at  Alcalde,  connects  the  town  of  Coalinga  with  Goshen, 
distant  fifty-six  miles,  and  through  Goshen  with  Fresno,  ninety  miles, 
Bakersfield,  one  liundred  and  twenty-nine  miles,  and  San  Francisco, 
two  hundred  and  ninety-six  niiles. 

In  the  Oil  City  district,  and  in  the  northeastern  i)art  of  the  field, 
most  of  the  pumping  is  done  l)y  means  of  jacks,  but  from   Section   31 


'^'•iC- 


FIELD    OPERATIONS COALINUA.  43 


COALINGA. 


The  Coalinua  oil  tic-Id  lies  at  tin-  castci'ii  cduc  of  tlic  foothills  of  tlu' 
Coast  Range,  and  on  the  western  houndary  of  the  San  .Ioa(|uiii  \'alley, 
in  Fresno  County. 

The  village  of  Coalinga  is  situated  on  the  mesa,  at  an  elevation  of 
665  feet;  the  developed  field  lies  west  and  north  of  the  town,  at  a  dis- 
tance ranging  from  four  to  eight  miles.  The  hills  gradually  inerease 
in  height  and  grow  rougher  toward  the  north,  ranging  from  800  or  WO 
feet  at  the  extreme  south,  to  1000  feet  on  Sec.  31,  1200-1400  feet  on 
Sees.  28  and  22,  and  1500-1550  feet  on  Sec.  20,  all  in  T.  19  S.,  R.  15  K. 

The  depth  of  wells  varies  from  600  feet  to  over  2000  feet,  according 
to  position  on  dip  of  ])rodueing  sand.  Two  entirely  distinct  formations 
furnish  oil  in  this  territory.  One,  following  the  edge  of  the  hills  in  a 
crescent  shape,  dips  gently  to  the  east  and  southeast,  and  has  l)een  ])ro- 
ductive  over  the  greater  part  of  the  length  of  the  field.  This  formation 
is  prol)ably  of  ^Middle  Neocene  age,  and  furnishes  black  oil  from  ht-ds 
of  incoherent  sand.  The  productive  limits  of  this  formation  to  tlu- 
east  do  not  appear  to  have  been  reached,  but  to  the  west  of  producing 
territory  the  sands  outcrop  at  a  numl)er  of  points,  and  extension  in 
this  direction  is  improbable.  An  entirely  distinct  formation  produces 
oil  in  the  Oil  City  district,  on  Sec.  20-19-15,  the  producing  strata  being 
of  Eocene  age.  These  strata  dip  sharply  to  the  southeast,  and  furnish 
a  green  oil  from  thin  layers  of  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  This  pool 
has  been  clearly  defined  on  all  sides. 

The  oils  produced  in  the  Coalinga  field  vary  greatly  in  quality.  That 
from  the  Oil  City  pool  is  of  a  clear  green  color,  and  33°  gravity.  In  the 
northeast  portion  of  the  field,  in  Sees.  21,  22,  and  28,  an  oil  of  26°  to 
28°  gravity  is  found  in  the  upper  sand,  and  an  oil  of  20°  to  22°  l)elow 
it.  On  Sec.  31  the  oil  is  from  16°  to  18°,  growing  lighter  down  the  dij) 
of  the  sand,  l)ut  falling  in  gravity  as  the  formation  is  followed  south, 
to  12°  on  Sec.  26,  and  18°  on  Sec.  24-20-14.  Prol)ably  more  than  half 
of  the  oil  produced  in  Coalinga  is  refined. 

The  field  is  served  by  a  l^ranch  of  the  Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company's 
pipe-line  to  Point  Richmond,  which  reaches  all  parts  of  the  field. 
There  are  also  five  pipe-lines  from  various  parts  of  the  field  to  the 
railroad  at  Oro  station.  A  l)raneh  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad, 
terminating  at  Alcalde,  connects  the  town  of  Coalinga  with  Goshen, 
distant  fiftj'-six  miles,  and  through  Goshen  with  Fresno,  ninety  miles, 
Bakersfield,  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  miles,  and  San  Francisco, 
two  hundred  and  ninety-six  miles. 

In  the  Oil  City  district,  and  in  the  northeastern  i»art  of  the  tield, 
most  of  the  pumping  is  done  by  means  of  jacks,  l»ut  from   Section   31 


44 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


No.  22.    Co.\li.\(;a — Looking  South  fkom  S.W.  |  Skc.  22,   19  8.,  1.5  E. 


No.  2:5.     Co.vLixuA — LooKiNci  Noi;th  fkom  Sectiox  7. 


.aaar^  aio 

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Figure  14. 

SANTA   MARIA   OIL   FIE:LD. 

SANTA  BARBARA  COUNTY,  CAL. 
Issued  by  the  Stute  Mining  Bureau.     Lewis  E.  Aum'RY,  Slate  Mineralogist 


FIKLD    OPERATIONS — SAN'PA    MARIA.  4o 

south  the  Avells  all  puiu})  on  the  beam.     TIutc   air  three  or  four   wells 
in  this  part  of  the  held  whieli  How  cjuite  freely. 

STATISTICS.     (Doctiuh.T  1,  l!Mi;;.) 

Number  of  wells  i)roduciiif; _ lin 

Number  of  wells  drilling :v.\ 

Number  of  wells  not  producing..     . « 

Number  of  wells  abandoned -.. «)H 

Approximate  area  producing ...240()  acres. 

(Jravity  of  oil     Maxinuim,  33.3°;  Mininuini,  11.8°;  Average,  20°  Be. 

.Vppro.ximate  i)resent  price  at  wells,  per  barrel — 

20°  and  heavier 20  cents. 

23° 25  cents. 

83° 60  cents. 

28° 80  cents. 


SANTA  MARIA. 

The  oil  tields  of  northern  Santa  Barbara  County,  which  for  hick  of  a 
settled  title  have  been  noted  here  under  this  name,  are  yet  too  new  to 
warrant  any  detailed  description.  A  small  number  of  wells  are  scattered 
over  a  very  large  area,  and  the  intervening  territory,  while  very  hope- 
ful, is  yet  an  unknown  quantity. 

This  district  slopes  gradually  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
is  a  country  of  parallel,  low  hill  ranges,  separating  narrow  valleys 
parallel  to  and  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Santa  Maria  River.  The 
more  elevated  portions  of  the  district  are  suitable  for  grazing;  the 
valleys  are  fertile  farming  land.  The  larger  part  of  the  area  was 
covered  by  a  Spanish  colony  of  early  date,  and  divided  into  large 
ranches,  and  the  oil  holdings  are  largely  on  mineral  leases.  As  will  be 
seen  from  attached  map,  most  of  the  holdings  are  large,  and  the  entire 
area  which  now  appears  promising  is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  large  firms. 

The  towns  of  Lompoc  and  Los  Alamos  are  within  the  limits  of  the 
field,  while  the  thriving  little  city  of  Santa  Maria  lies  l)ut  a  mile  to  the 
north  of  the  north  line  of  the  map.  The  coast  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  lies  along  the  western  edge  of  the  field,  which  is  crossed 
also  by  the  Pacific  Coast  Railway,  a  narrow-gauge  line  running  from 
Los  Olivos  to  San  Luis  Obispo  via  Santa  Maria.  The  latter  town  is 
two  hundred  and  fifty-three  miles  from  San  Francisco,  while  Casmalia 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  is  distant  one  hundred  and  ninety  miles  from 
Los  Angeles. 

The  pipe-line  facilities  are,  as  would  be  expected  in  so  new  a  field, 
rather  incomplete.  A  line  extends  from  the  Pinal  projjcrty  in  the  north 
to  the  sugar  factory  at  Betteravia;  another  from  tlie  same  initial  point 
to  Graciosa  on  the  Pacific  Coast  Railway,  this  line  being  surveyed  to 
Point  Sal  landing,  on   the  ocean.     A  third   line  connects  the  Western 


AIHAM   ATTVIAS 


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j^i  -._.  J.CI  L^oeeir-i 


ooqMoj 


FIELD    OPERATIONS — SANTA    MARIA.  45 

south  the  Avi'lls  all  ])uiup  on  the  beam.     There  arc   three  or  four   wells 
in  this  part  of  the  field  whieh  flow  (juite  fri-ely. 

STATISTICS.     (DoceinlHT  1,  1!M«.) 

Number  of  wells  produfinj; lin 

Number  of  wells  drilling .« 

Number  of  wells  not  producing _ H 

Number  of  wells  abandoned (jH 

Approximate  area  producing 2400  acres. 

(rravity  of  oil     Ma.ximuui,  33.3°;  Minimum,  11.8°;  Average,  20°  Be. 

Approximate  ])resent  price  at  wells,  per  barrel — 

20°  and  heavier 20  cents. 

23° 25centi'. 

33° 60  cents. 

28° 80  cents. 


SANTA  MARIA. 

The  oil  fields  of  northern  Santa  Barbara  County,  whieh  for  lack  of  a 
settled  title  have  been  noted  here  under  this  name,  are  yet  too  new  to 
warrant  any  detailed  description.  A  small  number  of  wells  are  scattered 
over  a  very  large  area,  and  the  intervening  territory,  while  very  hope- 
ful, is  yet  an  unknown  quantity. 

This  district  slopes  gradually  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
is  a  country  of  parallel,  low  hill  ranges,  separating  narrow  valleys 
l)arallel  to  and  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Santa  Maria  River.  The 
more  elevated  portions  of  the  district  are  suitable  for  grazing;  the 
valleys  are  fertile  farming  land.  The  larger  part  of  the  area  was 
covered  by  a  Spanish  colony  of  early  date,  and  divided  into  large 
ranches,  and  the  oil  holdings  are  largely  on  mineral  leases.  As  will  be 
seen  from  attached  map,  most  of  the  holdings  are  large,  and  the  entire 
area  which  now  appears  promising  is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  large  firms. 

The  towns  of  Lompoc  and  Los  Alamos  are  within  the  limits  of  the 
field,  while  the  thriving  little  city  of  Santa  Maria  lies  l>ut  a  mile  to  the 
north  of  the  north  line  of  the  map.  The  coast  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  lies  along  the  western  edge  of  the  field,  which  is  crossed 
also  by  the  Pacific  Coast  Railway,  a  narrow-gauge  line  running  from 
Los  Olivos  to  San  Luis  Obispo  via  Santa  Maria.  The  latter  town  is 
two  hundred  and  fifty-three  miles  from  San  Francisco,  while  Casmalia 
cm  the  Southern  Pacific  is  distant  one  hundred  and  ninety  miles  from 
Los  Angeles. 

The  pipe-line  facilities  are,  as  would  be  expected  in  so  new  a  field, 
rather  incomplete.  A  line  extends  from  the  Pinal  i)roi)erty  in  the  north 
to  the  sugar  factory  at  Betteravia;  another  from  the  same  initial  point 
to  Graciosa  on  the  Pacific  Coast  Railway,  this  line  being  surveyed  to 
Point  Sal  landintr.  on   the  ocean.      A   third    line  connects   the  Western 


46 


PETROr.Kl'M    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


No.  24.     Saxta  .Mai:ia  Field,  Santa  Barbara  Co. — Carreaga  Weli,: 


"'"s^arsaii,  <•-. 


No.  2.').     A  Typical  Oil  Re.servoik 


XP  SIHJ  R  £  1  vy  s 


Figure  16, 

VENTURA  COUNTY  OIL  FIELDS, 

CouNxy,  Cal. 


r\ 


FIELD    OPERATIONS — \'KNTtl{A    COINTY.  47 

Union  property  with   the  oil   ivtincrv  at   (Javiota.  on   tlic  ocean.     The 
soutliern  portion  of  tlie  tiekl  has  as  yet  no  onth't. 

The  larger  i)art  of  the  oil  from  this  lidd  is  used  for  reliiiinii:  pur})oses. 

STATISTICS.     (I  )(•(■(■  Ml  her  •_'(!,  l!Hi:;. » 

X II  111  her  of  wells  jiroducing 21 

XuniluT  of  wells  (Irillinu; IH 

X umber  of  wells  of  uiicortaiii  vahie 2 

X'unihor  of  wells  nliandoiu'd  _.  10 

Approximate  area  produeiuj; _,  2(RI0  acres. 

(iravity  of  oil ..Maxiimini,  27°;   .M  iniiuiim,  16° ;  Average,  20°  Be. 

Appnixiniate  prex'iit  jiricc  at  wells,  per  harrel up  to  SO  cents. 


VENTURA  COUNTY. 

The  coast  lino  of  Ventura  County  lies  roughly  east  and  west,  and  is 
paralleled  by  a  range  of  steep  hills.  North  of  these  hills,  and  there- 
fore also  parallel  with  the  coast,  lies  the  valley  of  the  Santa  Clara 
River,  a  small  stream  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  San  Fernando  Moun- 
tains, and  enters  the  oeean  at  Ventura.  The  oil  deposits  of  this  region 
have  been  found  along  both  sides  of  the  Santa  Clara,  the  larger  area  of 
{•rodneing  territory  ])eing  to  the  north. 

The  river  valley  is  here  some  two  miles  wide,  is  fertile,  and  comjiletely 
farmed,  supporting  the  small  towns  of  Camulos,  Pirn,  and  Fillmore, 
and  the  little  city  of  Santa  Paula.  The  hills  to  the  south  and  north  of 
the  valley  are  steep,  rough,  and  entirely  liarren,  those  to  the  south 
being  of  moderate  height,  being  some  2000  feet  in  general  above  the 
valley  floor,  which  is  itself  at  this  point  some  600  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  San  Rafael  Mountains,  to  the  north  of  the  valley,  rise  abruptly 
to  a  consideral)le  height,  not  less  than  4000  feet  at  some  points.  The 
wells  to  the  south  of  the  river  are  mostly  well  down  the  slope  of  the 
hills,  some  practically  at  river  level,  while  those  on  the  northern  slope 
commence  at  an  elevation  of  some  1200  feet,  and  rise  to  a  maximum 
height  of  2800  feet  above  sea  level.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  these 
wells  to  the  north  are  largely  situated  in  canons  among  very  rough 
hills,  many  of  the  leases  are  accessible  only  with  difticulty. 

The  major  part  of  the  production  comes  from  the  wells  south  of  the 
river,  and  from  those  on  Mount  Cayetano  to  the  east  and  Sulphur 
Mountain  to  the  west  of  Santa  Paula  Cation.  Many  of  these  wells  are 
(juite  old,  and  a  number  have  l)een  })umi»cd  out  and  abandoned,  though 
in  general  the  entire  territory  has  been  characterized  liy  great  stability. 
As  would  be  expected  in  such  broken  ground,  the  producing  areas  are 
small  and  somewhat  scattered.  In  general,  the  producing  formation 
seems  to  be  lenticular,  so  far  as  productiveness  is  concerned,  rich  at  the 
center  and  ra})i<lly  failing  at  distance,  either  from  disappearance  of  the 

4— BUL.  32 


FIELD    OPERATIONS — VKNTIKA    COINTY.  47 

Union  property  with  the  oil   retinerv  at   (Javiota.  on   llie  ocean.     The 
southern  portion  of  the  fiekl  lias  as  yet  no  outlet. 

The  larger  part  of  the  oil  from  this  field  is  used  foi-  I'dinini;-  purposes. 

STATISTICS.     (I  >.Mcinl.fr -Jn.  l!)(i.;. ) 

X umber  of  wells  producing 21 

XumbtT  of  wells  drilling IH 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value 2 

Number  of  wells  abandoned  _ 10 

.Vi)pro.\iiuate  area  jtroducing .    2<KK>  acres. 

(iravity  of  oil ..Maximum,  27°:   -Minimum,  1«°;  Average,  20°  Be. 

.Vpproximate  present  price  at  welTs.  )ier  barrel up  to  SO  cents. 


VENTURA  COUNTY. 

The  coast  line  of  \'entura  County  lies  roughly  east  and  west,  and  is 
[taralleled  hy  a  range  of  steep  hills.  North  of  these  hills,  and  there- 
fore also  parallel  with  the  coast,  lies  the  valley  of  the  Santa  Clara 
River,  a  small  stream  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  San  Fernando  ^^oun-' 
tains,  and  enters  the  ocean  at  Ventura.  The  oil  deposits  of  this  region 
have  been  found  along  l)otli  sides  of  the  Santa  Clara,  the  larger  area  of 
producing  territory  being  to  the  north. 

The  river  valley  is  here  some  two  miles  wide,  is  fertile,  and  com})letely 
farmed,  supporting  the  small  towns  of  ('amnios,  Pirn,  and  Fillmore, 
and  the  little  city  of  Santa  Paula.  The  hills  to  the  south  and  north  of 
the  valley  are  steep,  rough,  and  entirely  barren,  those  to  the  south 
being  of  moderate  height,  l)eing  some  2000  feet  in  general  above  the 
valley  Hoor,  which  is  itself  at  this  point  some  600  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  San  Rafael  Mountains,  to  the  north  of  the  valley,  rise  abruptly 
to  a  considerable  height,  not  less  than  4000  feet  at  some  points.  The 
wells  to  the  south  of  the  river  are  mostly  well  down  the  slope  of  the 
hills,  some  practically  at  river  level,  while  those  on  the  northern  slope 
commence  at  an  elevation  of  some  1200  feet,  and  rise  to  a  maximum 
height  of  2800  feet  above  sea  level.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  these 
wells  to  the  north  are  largely  situated  in  canons  among  very  rough 
hills,  many  of  the  leases  are  accessible  only  with  difficulty. 

The  major  part  of  the  production  comes  from  the  wells  south  of  the 
river,  and  from  those  on  Mount  Cayetano  to  the  east  and  Sulphur 
.Mountain  to  the  west  of  Santa  Paula  Canon.  Many  of  these  wells  are 
([uite  old,  and  a  number  have  Ijeen  pum})ed  out  and  abandoned,  though 
in  general  the  entire  territory  has  l)een  characterized  l\v  great  stability. 
As  would  be  expected  in  such  broken  ground,  the  producing  areas  are 
small  and  somewhat  scattered.  In  general,  the  producing  formation 
seems  to  be  lenticular,  so  far  as  productiveness  is  concerned,  rich  at  the 
center  and  rapidly  failing  at  distance,  either  from  disaiipearance  of  the 

4— BUL.  82 


48  PETHOLEUM     IN    CALIFORNIA. 

sand  or  from  })rogressiv('  lowering  of  its  saturation.  This  spottiness, 
(•onil)im'(l  with  the  diflficuhies  offered  by  the  surfaee,  have  made  pros- 
peeting  very  ex})ensive  and  nncertain;  but  as  the  oil  is  largely  of  a 
high  grade,  and  i)rodnction  ])er  well  satisfactory  and  lasting,  successful 
wells  have  been  very  profitable  to  tluni-  owners. 

The  coast  line  of  the  ►Southern  Pacific  Railroad  extends  through  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley,  distances  from  Santa  Paula  being,  to  Los  Angeles 
sixty-five  miles,  to  San  Francisco  four  hundred  and  sixteen  miles.  Th(^ 
Pacific  Coast  Oil  Company  has  a  trunk  pi})e-line  through  the  valley 
from  Pico  Canon  in  Los  Angeles  C'ounty  to  Ventura;  the  L^nion  Oil 
Company  a  line  from  Tapo  Caiion,  south  of  Camulos,  to  the  same  point. 
There  are  also  three  lines  to  the  railroad  from  various  points,  and 
numerous  branches  connecting  the  trunk  lines  to  various  parts  of  the 
field.  The  larger  part  of  the  j)ro(luction  goes  from  Ventura  l)y  water 
to  San  Francisco,  and  is  there  refined. 

STATISTICS.     (December  20,  l!t(i8.) 

Number  uf  wells  jjruducing S(N) 

Number  of  wells  drilling 11 

Number  of  wells  of  uncertain  value 2(5 

Number  of  wells  abandoned 144 

Approximate  area  producing  ._ , Tstj.  m. 

Gravity  of  oil Maximum,  40° ;   Minimum,  14°;   Average,  24°  Be. 

Approximate  present  price  at  wells,  per  barrel 40c  to  ^l.-'iO 


I-lKl.l)    orKKATIoNS VKN'II HA    COINTV. 


!•» 


No.    2li.      VEXTrKA  —  WnKELEK   CaXON    WkLLS.    HlKKOWS   vV:    Sox. 


No.  27.     Vextura— ToRKEY  CaSox  Wells,  Umon  Oil  Co. 


50  I'KTKOLKl  M    IN    CAMKOKMA. 

PART  11. 

USES  OF  CRUDE  OIL. 

CHAPTER  4. 
PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE. 

Color. — The  color  of  California  crude  })ctrolcuiii  ranjics  from  a  dec]) 
brownish  black  to  water  white,  the  usual  color  liein^-  black  or  dark 
brown.  This  dark  color  is  due  to  the  asi)halt,  and  changes  to  green  of 
more  or  less  brilliancy  on  removal  of  tliis  sul»stance;  a  few  of  the  oils 
containing  little  or  no  as])halt  are  green  in  their  crude  state,  while  even 
some  of  the  lighter  asidialtic  oils  show  a  green  tinge.  The  fluorescence 
of  tlie  crude  oils  is  uniforndy  green,  and  not  very  pronounced;  the 
bloom  on  refined  oils  follows  the  usual  rule,  i.  e.,  is  absent  in  the 
naphthas,  blue  in  tlie  kerosenes  and  lighter  lubricating  oils,  changing 
to  green  in  the  heavier  lubricants.  The  blue  fluorescence  follows  farther 
down  the  scale  of  lubricants  than  with  the  usual  oil  of  the  Eastern 
States,  and  the  bloom  on  all  products,  both  light  and  heavy,  is  less 
pronounced. 

OdOP. — The  odor  of  the  heavier  oils  is  highly  characteristic,  but  mild 
and  rather  sweet,  very  rarely  sulphurous.  The  foul  odor  of  the  oils  of 
Texas,  Canada,  and  Ohio  is  entirely  absent.  Many  of  the  lighter  oils 
are  sweet,  resend)ling  Pennsylvania  crude  in  this  res})ect.  In  brief,  the 
odor  is  very  seldom  ol)jectional)le. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  si)ecitic  gravity  ranges  from  1.025  (;>°  on 
Beaume's  heavy  scale)  to  0.7490  (58°  Beaunie),  but  most  of  the  produc- 
tion falls  within  the  range  between  13°  and  35°  Be.  The  i)roduction 
of  the  entire  State  would  average  about  16.5°. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  specific  gravity  is  very  low.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  petroleum  of  this  State  is  highly 
oxidized  and  ([uite  viscous.  But  it  is  also  a  fact  that  the  lighter  oils 
are  also  of  (juite  low  gravity  (l)y  comparison),  l)eing  from  10^  to  15°  Be. 
lower  than  would  l)e  indicated  l)y  the  viscosity  and  boiling  range.  The 
very  low  gravity  appears  to  indicate  a  radical  difference  of  constitution 
from  that  of  the  paraffin  oils,  a  subject  which  will  be  treated  more  in 
detail  in  later  paragra])hs. 

Viscosity. — The  viscosity  of  Califoi'uia  ])eti-ok'um  rangi's  from  tliat  of 
a  semi-solid  sul)stance  to  less  than  1.00  (the  viscosity  of  water).  The 
average  viscosities  arc:  for  oils  of  14°  gravity,  1000;  for  oils  of  1(5°  gravity, 
400;  for  oils  of  18°  gravity,  75;  for  oils  of  20°  gravity,  15.     Different 


rHYSICAI.    CHAIJACPKIJISTICS    OF    CAMKOUN-IA    t'ltrDK.  51 

samples  of  tlic  same  <j;r:ivity  vary  coiisidcraMy  in  viscosity.  These  and 
followinji  viscosities  (excepting-  those  in  'I'altle  h/ )  are  taken  Ity  KuLder 
instrument  at  (U)"  F..  water  at  the  same  temperature  lieinjj;  taken  as  1.00. 

The  high  viscosity  of  the  heavier  CaHfornia  oils  is  a  very  impoiiant 
factor  in  hnndHng  them  on  a  hirge  st':de.  The  oils  lighter  than  20^  are 
)>i])ed  cold  without  dithculty.  Howing  freely  undei-  a  moderate  head. 
Some  oils  of  IS'^  <:ravity.  even,  may  l)e  pij)ed  reailily,  l>ut  the  handlin<: 
of  the  heavier  oils  throu,tj.h  lines  of  any  lemith  is  a  matter  of  some  dif- 
tieulty.  and  re(|uires  sjieeial  pi'eeautions. 

The  viscosity  as  read  in  the  lahoratory.  thoujih  compared  directly  with 
that  of  water,  can  not  l)e  I'onsidered  an  alisolutt-  measure  of  the  i-esist- 
ance  to  pumj)ing,  as  compared  with  the  resistance  of  watei-  under  tin- 
same  conditions.  The  lahoratory  viscosity  determination  is  made,  as  a 
rule,  through  a  very  small  oi-itit'c,  highly  ])olished.  and  rathei-  short, 
and  it  will  l)e  evident  that  ca})illarity  and  tlie  sui-face  tension  of  the 
oil  cut  a  i-onsiderahle  figure  in  determining  the  s})eed  of  discharge, 
while  in  pi])ing  the  oil  the  interior  or  fluid  friction  is  the  main  source 
of  resistance  to  How,  that  })ortion  of  tlu'  oil  in  actual  contact  with  the 
walls  of  the  }>ii)e  heing  practically  inimovahle.  Nevertheless,  the 
lahoratory  determination  of  viscosity  is,  in  the  ahsence  of  more  i)rac- 
tical  data,  a  vakial)le  indication  as  to  the  real  tiuidity  of  the  oil, 
jiarticularly  if  determinations  ai'c  made  at  vai'ious  tempcratui'cs  and 
the  results  })lotted. 

The  viscosity  of  our  14°  to  16°  oil  falls  very  rapidly  with  increasing 
temperature,  the  viscosity  at  110°  F.  heing,  as  a  rule,  from  one  eighth  to 
one  tenth  of  the  viscosity  at  60°  F.;  that  is  to  say,  an  oil  which  reads 
mo  at  60°  would  generally  read  from  ;;0  to  40  at  110°  F,  Ah..ve  this 
tem})erature  the  decrease  is  mtich  less  rapid.  This  decrease  in  viscosity 
with  rising  temperature  offers  a  means  of  rendering  the  oil  sufficiently 
fluid  to  pipe,  and  this  method  is  the  one  generally  used  on  short  lines. 
The  oil  is  heated  in  the  tank,  l)y  means  of  steam  coils,  to  su(4i  tempei'a- 
ture  as  is  needed  to  render  it  sufficiently  fluid,  and  enough  in  excess  to 
offset  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  line.  The  oidy  drawl»ack  to  this  method 
of  working  is  that  it  is  limited  in  its  aj)})lication  to  the  distance  to 
which  oil  originally  heated  to  200°  (whi<di  is  the  highest  temjx-rature 
jiracticahle)  may  be  pumped  without  falling  nuu-h  Ixdow  100°.  This 
•  listance  varies  with  tlie  conditions,  temi)crature  of  surrounding  soil, 
size  of  line,  and  jtrojKtrtion  of  time  in  use.  hut  it  would  })rohahly  l)e 
t-onservative  to  set  five  or  six  miles  as  the  greatest  distance  to  which 
oil  can  he  })umped  hot,  under  ordinary  conditions,  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.  Even  at  this  distance,  unless  special  prt'cautions  are  taken  to 
retain  the  heat,  much  difficulty  is  experienced. 

Pipe-Lines. — In  the  Kern  Uiver  oil  field  there  are  a  nundiei'  of  lines 
which  carry  oil  fi-om    various  jtarts  of  the  fi(4d  to  the   railroad.      These 


52  PETROI.ELM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

lines   raii<i;c  in  l«'i)j>tli  from  a  few   liundred  feet  to  al)out  four  miles,  and 

in   diameter  from  4"  to  7§".     On  one  line  in  the  southeaBtern  part  of 

the  field,  the  followintr  results  have  heen  noted: 

Dianu'ter  of  i'ipf 5g  inclie>. 

Length. - mnt  feet. 

Course. Stf;iii;:lit :  full  about  1(K»  feet,  with  very  little  unduhition. 

Gravity  of  oil '.... ..13.s°  Be. 

I nitiaT temperature -  -    .140°  F. 

Initial  i^res.sure 25()  to  ;iOO  pound.-^. 

Maximum  discharge  H<K)  harrel.s  per  hour. 

Minimum  discharge  "2")  barrels  per  hour. 

The  maximum  dischai'tic  was  noted  durinii  liot  weather  (the  temi)era- 
ture  of  the  air  at  this  ])oint  often  reaehes  120°  F.)  and  after  the  line 
liad  been  cleaned  and  heated  hy  continued  use.  The  loAver  figure  was 
the  average  of  a  twelve  hours"  run  during  the  winter,  the  line  having 
})een  shut  down  for  some  time  })revious.  Tliis  line  is  Ituried  a])|)roxi- 
mately  twelve  inches. 

On  another  line  in   the  same    general    neighhorhood.   the    following 

results  were  obtained: 

Diameter  of  pipe 6  inches. 

Length  of  line .'jOOO  feet. 

Course  ^  Straight,  verj'  little  difference  of  level  be- 

^  tween  terminals,  some  slight  undulations. 

Gravity  of  oil 1.5.5°  Be.  average. 

Initial' temperature 80°  to  1(X»°  F. 

Initial  pressure ; 2;50  to  4.5(1  pounds. 

Maximum  discharge 1100  barrels  per  hour. 

Minimum  discharge . :^:^0  barrel >  per  hour. 

These  figures  for  discharge  are  the  averages  of  the  times  required  to 
discharge  a  20,000-barrel  tank,  the  maximum  being  in  summer,  when 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  at  least  as  hot  as  the  oil,  the  minimum  in 
Avinter,  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  about  60°  F.  on  an  average. 
This  line  is  practically  on  the  surface. 

A  line  was  laid,  not  long  .since,  from  the  Kern  River  field  to  a  point 
not  far  from  San  Francisco,  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  miles.  This  line  is  eight  inches  in  diameter,  laid  about  three  feet 
beneath  the  surface,  and  very  carefully  wrapped  in  asphalted  paper,  to 
exclude  dampness  and  retain  heat.  The  line  was  divided  into  ten 
blocks,  of  ap})roxiniately  equal  length,  each  l)lock  being  an  independent 
line,  with  its  own  pumps,  heaters,  and  receiving  tanks.  The  oil  was 
lieated  to  180°  F.,  and  punq)ed  under  six  hundred  pounds  pressure. 
Details  as  to  the  results  of  this  interesting  experiment  are  not  availaljle, 
but  it  is  known  tluit  much  difhculty  was  experienced,  and  that  the 
carrying  capacity  was  small.  It  is  not  now  in  operation  (Ai)ril,  1904), 
although  it  is  reported  that  work  will  l)e  resumed  during  the  summer. 
The  entire  course  of  the  line  is  in  the  San  Joacjuin  Valley,  through  a 
sandy  soil,  temperatures  dui-ing  the  summer  ranging  about  110°  at 
noon  and  70°  at  midnight,  and  in  winter  down  to  50°  F. 

Another,  and  more  widely  aitplicable,  method  is  to  i)Uinii  water  into 
the   line   with   the  oil.      The   disadvantages  of  this  system  are  ol)vious: 


PHYSICAL    CHAIiACTKRISPH'S    OK    CAI.IKOKN  I A    CIUDK.  53 

that  the  water  is  valual)lr  at  many  points  wlicrc  oil  is  produced,  and 
lliat  water,  once  mixed  with  a  licavy  oil,  is  not  i-cadiiy  scjiaratcd. 
There  is  the  great  advantage,  however,  that  the  system  will  work  to  a 
much  greater  distance  than  the  other,  and  further  that  the  rate  of  dis- 
charge varies  little  with  fluctuations  of  temperature. 

The  theory  of  the  system  is  that  the  oil,  from  its  great  eohesion  and 
high  surface  tension,  will  form  a  solid  eoi-e,  surroundeil  and  kept  from 
contact  with  the  pipe  hy  a  layer  of  water,  tlu'  core  rotating  slowly  as  it 
passes  through  the  pipe.  Theoretically  the  friction  is  that  of  water  in 
pipes,  but  practically  it  is  greater,  as  the  layer  of  water  can  not  he  kei)t 
intact  over  the  entire  surface,  and  wherever  the  oil  lays  hold  of  the 
pipe  the  resistance  to  How  is  increased. 

The  essential  factor  in  this  process  is  to  kvv\>  oil  and  water  separate, 
as  far  as  ]H)ssil)le,  in  the  pipe,  as  an  emulsion  of  oil  and  water  is  often 
less  tluid  than  the  oil  itself.  The  water  shovdd  lie  introduced  after 
the  oil,  from  a  separate  source  of  supply,  and  in  such  manner  as  will 
tend  not  to  mix  the  two,  but  to  retain  the  water  next  to  the  walls  of 
the  pipe.  In  order  to  keep  the  oil  from  breaking  through  the  water 
layer,  any  obstruction  or  enlargement  wdiich  would  cause  an  eddy  is 
carefully  avoided,  bends  are  made  of  long  radius,  and  the  level  is  pre- 
served as  far  as  possible.  Where  care  has  been  taken  as  to  these  points 
the  system  has  worked  admirably  in  a  number  of  situations,  and  has 
made  it  possible  to  pipe  oil  from  remote  situations  wdiere  the  pumping 
of  hot  oil  would  be  impracticable.  Arrangements  have,  of  course,  to 
l)e  provided  for  separating  water  from  oil  at  terminus. 

A  line  worked  on  this  principle  runs  from  the  Buckhorn  wells  in 
\'entura  County  to  the  railroad  at  Buckhorn.  ^Nlr.  \V.  L.  Watts 
(Bulletin  19,  California  State  Mining  Bureau)  reports  as  follows  re- 
garding this  line: 

Diameter  of  line '2  inches. 

Length  of  line 5  miles. 

Course . Sinuous,  long  bends,  no  great  undulations. 

Temperature 7.1°  in  stimmer,  60°  in  winter. 

Pressure 5(X)  foot  head. 

Maximum  discharge 21  barrels  oil  per  hour,  in  summer. 

Minimum  discharge !.'>  barrels  oil  per  hour,  in  winter. 

Flash  Point. — The  Hash  point  of  California  crude  ranges  from  400°  V. 
down  to  iSO'^  F.  or  lower.  Most  of  the  oil  classed  as  fuel  oil  Hashes 
above  150°  F.,  and  practically  all  of  it  above  130°  F.  It  will  be  seen 
that  none  of  the  fuel  oil  of  this  State  requires  any  preparation,  in 
regard  to  Hash  point,  to  tit  it  for  use.  Considerable  quantities  of  pre- 
pared oil  for  fuel  are  now  being  put  on  the  nuirket,  these  oils  being  the 
residues  of  the  distillation  of  lighter  oils,  and  similar  to  the  "astatki'' 
of  the  Caucasus.  These  oils  are  of  high  Hash  point,  and  are  of  excel- 
lent (quality  in  all  respects. 

All  the  Hash  points  mentioned  herein,  with  the  exception  of  those  in 
Table  4a,  are  by  the  open  electric  cup,  standard  in  San  Francisco. 


54 


'KTROI.EUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Calorific  Value. — Tlie  calorific  value  of  California  crude  ranges  from 
10,000  to  11,000  calories  (18,000  to  19,800  B.  T.  U.),  and  averages  10,500 
calories  (18,900  B.  T.  U.).  As  a  rule,  the  higher  the  gravity  of  the  oil, 
the  higher  the  calorific  value,  though  this  generality  can  not  be  applied 
too  closely. 

This  average  of  10,500  calories  is  1.8%  lower  than  the  average  of  six 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  petroleums  (Poole,  ''Calorific  Power 
of  Fuels,"  p.  251),  and  1.1%  lower  than  the  average  of  six  samples  of 
Beaumont  (Texas)  oil  (from  various  sources).  Taking  account,  how- 
ever, of  the  difference  in  weight  per  unit  of  volume,  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  Pennsylvania  oils  hcing  0.8490,  of  the  Texas  oils  0.9200,  and  of 
the  California  oils  0.9415,  the  figures  would  stand:  California  1.000, 
Texas  0.988,  Pennsylvania  0.918.  The  advantage  would  be  slightly 
with  the  California  oil,  although  the  number  of  determinations  is  really 
too  small  to  l)e  the  Ijasis  for  a  general  deduction. 

In  TaV)le  4,  following,  will  be  found  gravities,  viscosities,  flash  and 
burning  points,  and  calorific  values  of  a  number  of  samples  of  Cali- 
fornia crude  oil.  The  figures  in  the  first  portion  of  the  table  are  from 
a  paper  by  Prof.  Edmund  O'Neill,  of  the  University  of  California,  pub- 
lished in  the  "Journal  of  tlie  American  Chemical  Society,"  July,  1903. 
The  figures  in  the  second  portion  of  the  table  were  made  by  Mr.  Wayne 
Colver  and  by  the  writer,  in  the  latter's  laboratory.  A  large  number  of 
determinations  of  physical  properties  will  be  found  in  the  last  talde  in 
this  volume,  these  figures  being  by  Mr.  H.  N.  Cooper. 


TABLE  4.     PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE  OILS. 

(A)     Bji  Prof.  Eiliniuid  O'Xeill,  of  the  Uniiwrxili/  of  Culifoniui. 


No. 

Fit^l.l. 

Couiily. 

Color. 

■A    "O 

P  -"^  - 

;    3-c 

Viscosity  at 

OOO  F.     185°  F 

i 

:  «< 

145 

Colusa 

Napa 

Colusa 

14.3° 

15.5 

29.0 

37.5 

26.1 

48.6 

34.4 

22.1 

20.3 

17.7 

15.1 

16.0 

13.4 

13.2 

14.7 

IH.O 

16.3 

17.0 

14.7 

28.0 

12.1 

23.0 

4.88      1.28 

10.35      1.34 

1.57      1-05 

'  18,648 

KHI 

Xapa 

Humboldt 

Humboldt 

Humboldt 

Humboldt 

Santa  Clara  .. 

Brown 

Red-Brn.  . 
Yellow-... 

Yellow 

Yellow 

268° 

280° 

1HI 

Humboldt 

Humboldt  ._  . 
Humboldt  _ . . 

Humboldt 

Santa  Clara... 

San  Mateo 

Coalinga 

McKittrick  ... 
McKittrick  ... 

Sunset 

Kern  River  ... 
Kern  River  ... 
Kern  River  ... 
Kern  River  ... 
Kern  River  ... 

Kll 
!)5 

b.50 

228 

63 

b.  .50 

237 

65 

LIO 
3.00 
1.17 

0.95 
1.15 
0.96 

20,146 

1H4 

i;^4 

San  Mateo 

Fresno 

Kern   

Brown 

Brown 

158 

215 
202 

10.96 

11.19 

63.15 

282.03 

1.50 
1.54 
2.12 
3.57 

"  18^67.5 
18  571 

1S,5 

Kern 

Black 

Black  

108 

Kern 

18,684 
18  478 

110 

Kern . 

111 

Kern 

Black 

Black 

Black  

Black 

1759.13 
274.35 
373.11 
2W).59 
142.66 
;347.77 

7.51 
3.  .35 
3.67 
4.70 
2.85 
3.37 

18,:M2 
18,848 
18,646 
18,797 

U9. 

Kern __ 

Kern 

Kern .. 

\m 

iri7 

118 

18,630 

187 

196 

221 

^99 

19,440 

149 

Summerland.. 
Ventura 

Santa  Barbara 
Ventura  ..    . 

Black 

1462.83 
34.28 

8.35 

LH4 

IHfi 

84 

95 

PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTUP    OK   CAI.IF<  >|{N  I A    CRl'DK. 


55 


TABLE  4.     PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE  OILS     Cont'd. 
(B)    By  Watiiie  L'olver  and  J'nul  H'.  I'nitznuin. 


405 
2413 
2495 
24&4 
2425 
2442 
2492 
2493 
2441 
14H3 
2491 
2451 
2426 
2421 
2454 
1419 
2412 
498 
433 
430 
1465 
444 

4:^ 

497 
2490 
1450 
1466 
1496 
1493 
2405 
1454 
1480 
1471 
24:i5 
1482 
1499 
2443 
2444 

14!:tO 

1470 
1462 
1489 


KifM. 


Lo;-  Angeles  City 
Los  Angeles  City 
Los  Angeles  Citv 

ojai-  _.. :. 

Ex- Mission 

Bardsilale 

P\illerton 

Fulleiton 

Fullerton 

Whittier 

Whittier 

Whittier 

Pnente 

Pnente 

Xewhall 

Newhall 

Santa  !Maria 

Bitterwater 

Panoche 

San  Mateo 

San  ^lateo 

Colusa 

Napa 

Bolinas  Bay 

Coalinga./- 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Sunset 

Sunset 

Sunset 

Midway 

Midway 

^IcKittrick 

McKittrick 

McKittrick 

McKittrick 

Kern  River 

Kern  River 

Kern  River 


Los  Angeles  .. 
Los  Angeles  .. 
Los  Angeles  _. 

Ventura 

Ventitra 

Ventura 

Orange 

Orange 

Orange 

Los  Angeles  .. 
Los  Angeles  .. 
Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles  __ 
Santa  Barbara 

San  Benito 

Fresno 

San  Mateo 

San  ^lateo 

Colusa 

Xapa 

Marin  

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern .. 

Kern 

Kern 

Kern 


('..lor. 


Black  

Black  

Brown 

Black 

Green-Black  . 

Brown 

Brown-Black 
Brown- Black 

Brown 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Brt)\vn-Black 

Brown 

Black  __. 

White 

Black 

Brown-Green 

Brown 

Greenish 

Brown-Green 

Green  

Green-Brown 
Brown-Black 
Brown-Black 

Black 

Black-Brown 
Black 


~3    '?'^: 


'^      ^•n^'-^'rr: 


Black 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Black-Brown 

Black 

Brown 

Black  

Brown-Black 

Black 

Black 

Black 


15.2° 
13.5 
13.0 
11.8 
25.4 
28.0 
20,2 
2ti.6 
33.(1 
19.0 
20.4 
21.0 
20.1 
27.2 
14.0 
42.7 
16.9 
42.7 
32.9 
41.7 
48.8 
15.2 
1.5.2 
21.5 
28.5 
21.9 
19.8 
16.8 
12.6 
11.9 
9.9 
14.4 
16.5 
13.0 
20.2 
11.9 
13.6 
15.1 
19.0 
10.4 
13.9 
15.6 


258° 

260 

270 

120 

b.60 

120 

140 

b.  60 

108 

1.54 

i    127 

60 

78 

263 

b.60 

!    130 

b.60 

\h.m 

b.60 

252 


133 
60 
149 
143 
248 
322 


308 
260 
210 

2m 

162 
304 
275 
267 
178 
MS 
269 
253 


343° 
310 
139 


192 

196 

b.60 

"228 

180 

98 

120 

280 

b.60 

b.60 


368 

354 
317 
313 
194 


Vis 


Reading. 


At 
Decs. 
Fall. 


63.4(1 

730.44 

1004.35 

172S..33 

O.iKi 

I3.."><i 

2.S.  7(  t 

62.()1 

2.82 

32.80 

258.26 

35.20 

4.22 

7!3("i 

782.60 

0.92 

156.0O 

1.29 

3.02 

1.08 


7<) 
(id 
69 
65 
60 
(U 
(i2 
50 
62 
61 
60 
70 
70 
(U 
70 
()8 
70 
61 
60 


b.60 

1.10 

61 

300 

3.74 

72 

(!.97 
46..52 

58 

182 

62 

68 

3.(Ki 

61 

187 

8.40 

(M 

178 

29.20 

(>0 

1.58.(HI 

60 

1513.00 


282 


716.00 


1565.22  I      65 

26.50  ;      68 

Semi-solid  60 

866.(Mi         60 

338.30         ()6 

21.90         65 

Semi-solid  60 

249.50  I       75 

341.70        60 


Cleaning"  Crude  Oil. — The  lighter  of  the  crude  oils  of  California, 
being  found,  ay  a  rule,  in  coherent  formations,  are  ohtained  in  a  clean 
condition,  any  water  or  fine  sand  \vhich  may  be  pumped  \vith  the  oil 
settling  out  readily.  But  most  of  the  heavy  oils  are  found  in  loose 
sand,  often  of  great  fineness,  and  where  the  gravity  of  the  crude  falls 
below  18'^  a  large  amount  of  sand  Avill  be  pumped  with  the  oil.  This 
sand,  and  the  accompanying  water,  must  be  removed  Ity  long  standing, 
or  by  the  application  of  heat,  or  by  both. 

In  the  Kern  River  field,  where  the  greatest  dilhcultics  with  sand  are 
experienced,  and  where  the  most  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  pro- 
viding against  these  difhculties.  it  is  customary  to  ])um])  into  settling 


56  I'KTKOLEr.M    JN    i  ALIFOKNIA. 

holet^  or  sumps,  thesf  being  simply  excavations  in  tlie  sandy  soil,  of 
small  size,  and  i)laced  as  close  to  the  well  as  convenient.  From  these 
sumps,  which  are  originally  of  from  500  to  2000  barrels  capacity,  but 
which  rapidly  grow  shallower  from  the  deposition  of  detritus  from  the 
oil,  the  latter  flows  by  gravity  to  the  storage  reservoirs.  These  reser- 
voirs are  large  shallow  excavations,  formed  in  general  in  the  following 
manner:  A  rectangle  of  convenient  size  is  laid  off,  and  an  embank- 
ment formed  about  it  by  plowing  and  scraping.  The  ground  is 
thoroughly  wet  down,  both  before  plowing  and  on  the  embankment 
after  the  scraper  is  dumped.  In  this  manner  the  hoofs  of  the  horses 
drawing  scrapers  operate  to  thoroughly  consolidate  and  tamp  down  the 
wet  earth,  and  a  very  close  bank  is  formed  Avithout  any  further  treat- 
ment. The  embankment  being  brought  to  the  desired  height,  and  the 
bottom  of  the  tank  brought  to  grade,  the  reservoir  is  finished,  except 
for  a  light  roof  of  wood,  covered  with  tarred  felt  or  asphalt  roofing. 
The  oil  is  drawn  off  below  through  a  pipe  set  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
and  arrangements  are  also  provided  for  drawing  off  any  accumulation 
of  water. 

These  reservoirs  are  often  of  great  size,  and  it  is  customary  to  carry 
in  them  as  large  a  stock  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  oil  may  stand 
quietly  for  some  time,  to  settle  thoroughly.  During  the  sunnner  months 
the  oil  stands  continually  at  a  high  temperature,  in  spite  of  being  roofed 
over,  and  becomes  quite  clean  without  further  treatment.  During  cooler 
weather,  or  in  any  case  where  reservoir  purification  is  not  thought  to  be 
sufficient,  the  oil  before  shipment  is  passed  through  a  cleaning  tank, 
generally  a  small  steel  tank,  provided  with  steam  coils,  and  with  two 
outlets.  Here  the  oil  is  heated  to  from  110°  to  150*^,  according  to  gravity 
and  to  degree  of  impurity,  and  the  purification  is  completed  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours.  The  high  degree  of  purity  which  is  attained  by 
the  use  of  these  simple  methods  is  quite  astonishing.  Even  where  the 
impurities  originally  amount  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  bulk  of  the  crude 
oil,  which  is  often  the  case,  the  oil  finally  shipped  will  not  contain 
more  than  two  per  cent  of  foreign  matter  of  all  kinds,  and  the  larger 
part  of  the  fuel  oil  found  in  the  San  Francisco  market,  at  least,  will  be 
found  to  contain  less  than  one  and  one  half  per  cent  of  impurity. 

Where  large  surfaces  of  heavy  crude  oil  are  exposed  to  sunlight,  in 
the  hot  climate  incident  to  most  of  our  oil  fields,  oxidation  takes  place, 
and  the  gravitj'  of  the  oil  is  rapidly  lowered,  while  the  viscosity  is 
increased.  If  this  operation  is  allowed  to  go  on  too  long,  the  oil  will  be 
reduced  to  a  tarry  condition,  and  its  connnercial  value  destroyed.  If 
sunlight  be  excluded,  however,  the  effects  of  a  high  temperature  are  not 
very  noticeable,  onctithe  fixed  gas  is  eliminated  from  the  oil.  Heavy 
crude  oil,  as  it  comes  from  the  well,  contains  considerable  permanent 
gas,  intimately  mixed    with  the  oil,  and  the  latter  thus  shows,  when 


PHYSICAL    CHAKACTEKISTU'S    OK    CALIloi;M\    (KIDK. 


No.  28.     Empty  Oil  Reskkvoik,  McKittkick,  Cai,.,  Associated  On.  Co. 


No.  29.     Oil   Kesekvoii;.   McKittrick.  Cai...   I'ac  iki<-  ('i;ri>F.  On,  Co. 


58 


rKI'KOLKlM     IN    (ALIKOKMA. 


fresh,  ii  liiohci-  ^navitv  tliaii  properly  \)elongs  to  it.  This  gas  soon  finds 
its  way  to  the  surface,  and  when  it  is  onee  out,  owing  to  an  ahnost 
complete  absence  of  substances  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures,  there 
is  little  further  change  in  gravity  if  oxidation  is  prevented.  It  is  thus 
possible  to  store  oil  for  considerable  periods  in  reservoirs  of  very  low- 
cost,  without  diminishing  the  value  of  the  ])roduct. 

The  reservoirs  are  ordinarily  not  lined  in  any  way,  as  ex})erience  has 
proven  that  the  loss  of  oil  through  seepage  is  very  small.  While  the 
soil  is,  as  a  usual  thing,  light  and  sandy,  the  finer  particles  of  sand  from 
the  oil  rapidly  till  the  i)ores  in  the  earth,  and  the  water  from  the  oil 
makes  this  coating  quite  impervious  to  the  passage  of  oil.  The  cleaning 
up  of  a  large  number  of  tanks  in  the  Kern  River  field  has  shown  that, 
even  Avhere  oil  has  stood  in  a  reservoir  for  nionths,  the  penetration  into 
the  soil  was  rarely  greater  than  four  inches. 


CHAPTER  5. 
THE  USE  OF  OIL  FOR  FUEL. 

The  advantages  attending  the  use  of  oil  for  fuel  liave  l;)een  so  often 
dwelt  on,  and  have  come  to  be  so  generally  a})preciated,  that  it  may 
.seem  useless  to  go  over  them  at  this  time.  Nevertheless,  some  are  yet 
unconvinced,  and  even  to  those  avIio  are  using  Ii(iuid  fuel  it  may  be  a 
matter  of  interest  to  recall  the  various  ways  in  which  petroleum  excels 
solid  fuel. 

Transportation. — Tlu'  Hrst  advantage  is  ease  of  transportation.  This 
may  not  amount  to  nnich  to  those  who  have  their  fuel  delivered  at  their 
doors,  but  in  situations  where  fuel  must  be  transported  as  used,  notably 
on  steamships,  it  is  a  very  important  matter.  The  loading  of  a  steam- 
ship with  coal  requires  days  where  an  equivalent  quantity  of  oil  may 
be  loaded  in  as  many  hours,  and  entirely  without  labor.  By  modern 
devices  oil  may  be  pumped  into  or  out  of  vessels  at"  points  where  it 
would  be  injpossible  to  dock  and  discharge  or  take  on  a  cargo  of  coal, 
while  vessels  at  sea  may  transfer  supplies  of  oil  in  weather  which  would 
quite  prevent  transferring  of  coal.  The  fuel  tanks  of  oil-burning  loco- 
motives are  loaded  with  the  turn  of  a  valve,  and  in  a  minimum  of  time, 
while  tank  wagons  deliver  oil  to  stationary  plants  where  the  handling  of 
coal  would  create  a  nuisance,  from  the  dust  raised,  as  well  as  seriously 
depreciate  tlie  value  of  the  solid  fuel. 

Storage  Space. — Where  a  su])})ly  of  fuel  must  be  stored,  a  second 
advantage  in  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  is  shown.     If  we  assume  as  a  basis 


THE    rSE    OF    OTT,    FOR    FUKL.  59 

that  four  l)arr('ls  of  oil  arr  I'c^ual  in  fuel  value  to  one  ton  ('2240  Ihs.)  of 
good  bituminous  eoal,  the  oil  oeeupies  a  space  less  than  three  fourths 
as  great  as  would  he  re(|uire(l  for  tlie  coal; — to  lie  more  accui'ate,  the 
four  barrels  of  oil  would  oceu})y  a  space  of  22.5  cubic  feet,  the  ton  of 
coal  from  32  to  -'5S  culiic  feet,  making  the  S])aee  reipiired  for  the  oil  from 
59%  to  70%  of  that  taken  by  the  coal.  Fnrt hei'inoi'e,  no  matter  how 
limited  boiler-room  sjjace  may  be  (and  in  otlice  l)uildin<is,  etc.,  this 
space  often  represents  consideral)le  value),  the  working  su])i)ly  of  coal 
must  always  be  on  the  l)oiler-rooni  iloor,  while  the  oil  supply  may  l>e, 
and  in  such  cases  geni'rally  is,  buried  under  the  sidewalk  or  the  cellar 
Hoor,  thus  taking  no  space  whatever  which  would  be  of  any  value  for 
other  })urposes,  beyond  that  re([uire(l  for  the  manhole  and  the  con- 
nections. 

Cleanliness. — The  cleanliness  incident  to  handling  and  using  oil  is 
too  manifest  to  need  argument.  The  coals  obtainal)le  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  at  least,  produce  great  quantities  of  dust,  soot,  and  ashes.  With 
any  proper  care  in  the  handling  of  oil,  all  these  disadvantages  may  be 
done  away  with,  and  the  boiler-room  kept  as  clean  as  a  well-regulated 
engine-room.  In  many  lines  of  business,  this  is  a  very  important 
matter  to  the  user  of  fuel,  and  where  oil  is  in  general  use,  as  it  is  in 
San  Francisco,  the  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  the  city,  due  to  the 
removal  of  the  smoke  from  coal  fires,  is  very  great. 

Labor. — The  lal)or  of  handling,  and  most  of  the  labor  of  stoking, 
are  done  away  with,  though  oil  fires  naturally  require  some  attention. 
The  greatest  saving  of  labor,  after  that  of  firing,  is  in  the  cleaning  of 
fires  and  fines.  Oil  fuel  does  away,  of  course,  with  clinkers,  and  there- 
fore with  the  very  trying  labor  of  slicing  and  cleaning  fires,  while  if 
properly  regulated  the  l)oiler  fines  may  be  kept  much  cleaner.  The 
latter  not  only  reduces  the  labor  of  keeping  the  fines  clean,  but  also 
considerably  reduces  the  waste  of  fuel  through  imperfect  transference 
of  heat  through  the  tubes  to  the  boiler  water.  The  removal  of  the 
necessity  of  constantly  opening  and  shutting  fire-doors  reduces  strains 
on  both  brickwork  and  l)oilers,  prolonging  the  life  of  l)oth,  though  this 
advantage  may  readily  l)e  lost  by  carelessness  in  handling  an  oil  fire, 
due  to  the  greater  ease  with  which  the  latter  may  l)e  forced. 

Reg'Ulation. — The  ease  of  regulation  is  a  great  factor  in  the  economy 
realized  in  the  use  of  oil  fuel.  The  fire  may  be  kept  at  a  constant 
point  foi'  hours  at  a  time,  or  may  by  the  turn  of  a  valve  be  made  to 
respond  to  the  most  unusual  denumds  for  })ower.  Where  the  call  for 
steam  is  fiuctuating,  as  on  locomotives,  where  the  denumd  for  power 
may  fall  within  a  few  seconds  from  the  maximum  capacity  of  the 
a})paratus  to  absolute  zero,  this  is  of  great  inq)ortance.  By  the  sim- 
plest contrivances  and  the  most  ordinary  attention,  the  needle  of  the 


60  PKTROI.KrM     IN    CALIFORNIA. 

steam  gauge  on  a  licax  y  freight  locomotive  may  be  kept  almost  stationary, 
up  hill  and  down,  and  through  stops  of  any  length.  This  ease  of  regu- 
lation is  })erhaps  most  ap])reciated  where  temperature  is  a  factor,  as  in 
running  an  oil  still  <>r  in  heating  metals.  The  temperature  of  an  oil 
still  may  he  regulated  to  a  nicety  and  with  the  greatest  ease,  while 
every  one  called  on  to  heat  iron  or  steel  will  appreciate  the  ease  with 
which  the  right  tempei'ature  for  foi'ging  or  other  o])erations  is  reat.-hed 
and  maintained. 

Capacity. — The  inei-ease  in  steaming  cajjaeity  of  l)oilers  is  considei-- 
able.  There  is  some  disagreement  as  to  figures,  hut  it  would  certainly 
be  conservative  to  claim  that,  with  a  i)roper  oil  installation,  a  boiler 
may  be  made  to  deliver  from  80%  to  50%  luore  steam  than  could  pos- 
sibly be  gotten  from  it  with  coal,  without  the  use  of  forced  draft.' 

But  these  points,  while  all  important  enough,  are  subordinate  to  the 
question  of  cost,  in  the  mind  of  the  average  consumer.  The  great 
economy  in  the  use  of  oil  (at  present  prices)  has  been  too  thoroughly 
demonstrated  to  perndt  of  any  (juestion,  yet  it  may  be  permissible  to 
point  out  briefly  the  reasons  for  and  the  extent  of  this  economy. 

Economy. — Theoretically,  the  saving  realized  from  the  use  of  liquid 
fuel  depends  on  three  factors:  first,  the  less  cost  of  the  fuel  per  unit  of 
heating  value;  second,  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  fuel,  that  is,  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  ultimate  heating  value  which  may  be  actually 
developed  around  or  under  the  object  to  be  heated,  or  in  other  words, 
the  possibility  of  more  perfect  combustion;  third,  the  avoidance  of  loss 
of  heat  in  various  Avays. 

The  first  point  is  by  far  the  most  important,  as  it  can  be  shown  that, 
theoretical  heating  values  being  equal,  oil  costs  only  from  one  half  to 
three  fourths  as  much  as  coal.  Let  us  take  as  an  instance  the  case  of  a 
small  consumer,  who  would  pay  about  $6  per  ton  (2240  lbs.)  for 
average  coast  coal,  or  65  cents  per  barrel  (in  carloads,  at  present  prices. 
Feb.  1904)  for  crude  oil.  Coal  at  $6  per  ton  costs  0.268  of  a  cent  per 
pound.  A  barrel  of  15°  oil  weighs  337  pounds,  making  the  cost  at  65 
cents  per  barrel  equal  0.193  of  a  cent  per  pound.  Assuming  the  calor- 
ific value  of  15°  oil  to  be  18,360  B.  T.  U.,  and  of  average  coast  coal  to 
be  12,600  B.  T.  U.  (and  the  latter  figure  is  more  than  fair  to  the  coal), 
the  cost  of  each  fuel  per  1000  B.  T.  U.  would  be: 

For  the  coal,  0.268c.  X  1000  ^  12,600  =  0.0213  cent; 
For  the  oil,    0.193c.  X  1000  h-  18,360  =  0.0105  cent; 

i.  €.,  the  cost  of  the  coal  would  be  exactly  twice  that  of  the  oil.  But 
while  the  small  consumer  can  buy  oil  almost  as  cheaply  as  the  large 

iSee  Tables  5  and  16;  also  compare  capacity  figures  in  Tables  20  and  21  with  tlie 
capacity  of  the  same  boilers  with  coal.— Hutton,  Steam  Boiler  Const.,  pp.  554-5. 


THE    rSK    OF    OIL    FOR    FFRL.  61 

('onsuiiier,  this  is  not  the  case  with  coal,  wliicli  can  be  contracted  in 
quantities  at  lower  tiuures.  With  coal  at  $5  i)er  ton  the  cost  of  coal 
would  be  1.66  times  that  of  oil;  with  coal  at  $5.50  per  ton,  1.83  times. 
These  are  theoretical  heating  values  only,  and  in  ])ractice,  owing  to  the 
greater  percentage  of  efficiency  of  oil,  the  con)parative  cost  of  coal  is 
somewhat  greater. 

It  has  been  })retty  well  proven  in  practice  that,  under  average  con- 
ditions, four  l)arrels  of  California  oil  would  do  the  work  of  one  ton  of 
average  coast  coal.  Four  barrels  of  15°  oil  would  weigh  1348  pounds, 
and  the  heating  value  at  18,360  B.  T.  U.  per  })ound  would  be  24,739,280 
B.  T.  U.  One  ton  (2240  lbs.)  of  coal,  at  12,600  B.  T.  U.  per  pound. 
would  have  the  heating  value  of  28,224,000  B.  T.  U.  Oil  with  the  heating 
value  of  24,750,000  units  will  therefore  do  the  work  of  coal  with  the 
heating  value  of  28.250,000  units,  a  difference  of  3,500,000  units,  oi- 
slightly  over  12%  of  the  heating  value  of  the  coal.  For  the  explana- 
tion of  this  saving  of  heat,  which  of  course  means  simply  that  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  available  heat  in  the  fuel  is  put  to  actual  use,  we 
must  look  to  the  second  factor  of  economy. 

The  losses  suffered  in  burning  any  kind  of  a  fuel  under  a  boiler 
arise  in  part  in  the  escape  of  unburned  fuel  in  its  original  form  through 
the  grate  bars,  in  part  in  the  escape  of  unburned  combustible  gases 
through  the  stack.  In  burning  coal,  particularly  a  coal  which  forms 
much  ash  or  a  heavy  clinker,  a  portion  of  the  fuel  wall  always  fall 
between  the  grate  bars  without  being  burned.  Clinkers  and  cinders 
always  contain  more  or  less  coal,  and  where  the  clinkers  are  very  hard, 
considerable  fuel  may  be  sliced  down  in  this  Avay  and  removed 
unburned.  Where  coal  is  fine  or  dusty,  a  good  deal  will  go  through 
the  bars  Avith  the  ash.  It  has  been  found  in  some  cases  that  ash  from 
industrial  estal)lishments  contained  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  combus- 
tible matter,  which,  if  the  ash  was  ten  per  cent  of  the  coal  (a  fair  per- 
centage on  this  coast)  would  equal  one  per  cent  of  the  coal.  This  is  a 
small  loss,  certainly,  but  has  its  part  in  making  up  the  total  economy 
in  burning  liquid  fuel.  With  oil  this  source  of  loss  is  entirely  obviated. 
The  only  approach  to  such  loss  is  w^here  carbon  forms  on  walls  or 
l)ridges,  from  imperfect  regulation  of  the  burner.  The  most  extreme 
case  of  such  carbon  formation  which  ever  came  under  the  writer's  notice 
was  where  a  cone-shaped  lump  weighing  about  30  pounds  was  formed 
under  a  small  boiler,  during  a  two  days'  run,  the  amount  of  oil  burned 
in  this  time  being  approximately  675  pounds.  The  loss  here  was  almost 
four  and  one  half  per  cent,  as  the  carbon  was  removed  for  examination ;  in 
all  ordinary  cases  such  formations  are  stopped  by  proper  regulation  of 
the  burner,  and  the  deposit  allowed  to  burn  away  slowly,  without  any 
loss  whatever.     It  goes  without  saying  that  to  allow  unburned  oil   to 


62  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

ac-cunmlate  in   tlie  Jislii)it,  or  to  flow  out  on   tlie  boiler-room   tloor,  as 
may  occasionally  l»e  seen,  is  the  grossest  carelessness. 

Combustion. — A  mueh  more  ini])ortant  saving  is  realized  through 
the  perfect  combustion  of  the  gases  in  the  firebox.  It  would  be  better 
to  say  may  be  realized,  as  this  is  a  matter  where  the  skill  and  atten- 
tiveness  of  the  fireman,  as  well  as  the  care  taken  in  designing  tlie 
firebox,  are  brought  very  much  into  evidence.  There  is  hardly  a  doubt, 
however,  that  it  is  now  jwssible  to  secure  with  oil  a  much  more  com- 
plete combustion  than  may  be  had  with  l)ituminous  coal  under  any 
ordinary  conditions,  and  that  the  skill  on  the  part  of  the  fireman 
which,  applied  to  the  burning  of  coal,  would  secure  very  mediocre 
results,  will  obtain  very  much  better  results  in  this  respect  when 
applied  to  the  burning  of  oil. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  flames  from  the  fire  beneath  a  boiler 
are  immediately  quenched  on  entering  the  mouths  of  the  tubes,  and 
that  any  gases  not  burned  before  reaching  this  point  will  not  be  burned 
at  all,  but  will  pass  out  of  the  flues  into  the  stack,  having  parted  with 
only  a  portion  of  their  available  heat.  For  this  reason  it  is  veiy  evi- 
dent that  it  is  important  to  burn  the  gases  as  completely  as  possible 
innnediately  under  the  boiler.  But  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary 
to  limit  the  amount  of  air  entering  the  firebox,  for  two  reasons:  that 
the  air  passing  through  the  fire  will  go  out  of  the  stack  at  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  that  at  which  it  entered  the  firebox,  thus 
carrying  away  part  of  the  heat;  and  that  an  excess  of  air  at  any  one 
point  may  cool  the  combustible  gases  below  the  point  at  which  they 
will  ignite,  thus  causing  them  to  pass  away  unburned.  To  obtain 
perfect  combustion  with  the  minimum  quantity  of  air,  it  is  necessary 
to  completely  mix  the  air  with  the  combustible  gases.  This  may  be 
done  completely  in  burning  gas  proper  {e.  g.,  coal  gas),  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  small  gas  burners  used  by  chemists  and  known  as  Bunsen 
burners,  but  in  burning  solid  or  liquid  fuel  it  may  be  done  only  in  part. 
It  may  easily  be  shown,  however,  that  this  mixture  of  the  combustible 
gases  with  the  necessary  air  may  be  obtained  much  more  readily  when 
burning  oil  than  when  burning  bituminous  coal,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  keep  the  amount  of  air  used  in  combustion  nmch  nearer  to  its  proper 
point. 

In  burning  bituminous  coal  on  a  grate,  the  coal  is  first  distilled  with 
the  production  of  coml)ustible  gases,  and  these  gases  then  burn.  When 
fresh  fuel  is  thrown  on  a  fire,  it  is  heated  by  the  coal  already  burning, 
the  heat  causes  it  to  distill,  when  it  gives  off  inflammable  vapors  and 
gases,  which  burn  in  the  fire  space,  causing  flame.  The  coke  left 
l)ehind  by  this  distillation  is  then  further  heated  until  it  ignites, 
and  irraduallv  l)urns  awav,  but   without  flame.     As  it  l)urns  it  grad- 


THE    rSK    OF    OIL    FOR    FUEL. 


63 


\ially  shrinks  in  bulk,  until  nothing  remains  l)ut  a  layer  of  ash, 
which  continually  works  its  way  through  the  grate  liars  into  the  ash- 
]>it.  A  coal  tire,  then,  consists  of  four  parts:  a  layer  of  ash  on  the 
grates;  a  layer  of  red-hot  coke  above  the  ash.  Imrning,  Init  without 
flame;  a  layer  of  fresh  coal  above  the  coke,  not  burning,  but  giving  off 


MO      SC^UE 


Fig.  20.     Showing  Course  of  Draft,  etc..  Coal-  and  Oil-Burning  Boilers. 

combustible  vapors  and  gases;  and  al)ove  all,  tlie  ^burning  gases,  or 
flame.  With  ordinary  bituminous  coal,  about  lialf  the  heat  is  generated 
by  the  burning  gases,  the  other  half  by  the  burning  coke,  so  that  if  any 
large  ]):irt  of  the  gases  pass  off  unburned,  the  loss  may  be  considerable. 
'^  —  HiL.  '.yi 


64  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

As  above  said,  to  burn  these  gases  they  must  be  mixed  with  the 
right  amount  of  air,  as  any  portion  of  the  gas  not  coming  into  contact 
with  air  before  entering  the  flues  will  escape  unburned.  Now,  in  a  coal 
fire,  a  large  part  of  the  air  necessary  for  combustion  must  enter  through 
the  ashpit,  and  therefore  pass  up  through  the  layer  of  ash  and  the 
burning  coke,  and  the  air  which  mixes  with  the  combustible  gases  above 
is  already  deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  oxygen.  To  mix  this  air  with 
the  gases,  dependence  must  be  had  on  the  natural  tendency  of  gases  to 
diffuse,  and  on  the  currents  created  by  the  draft.  These  currents  tend 
naturally  to  move  in  straight  lines,  and  have  very  little  mixing  effect, 
except  where  thrown  out  of  line  by  the  bridge  wall  or  similar  obstruc- 
tion. But  where  oil  is  used,  we  have  the  powerful  mixing  effect,  in 
addition,  which  is  due  to  the  high  velocity  of  the  jet  of  steam  and  oil 
entering  through  the  burner.  This  jet  is  almost  always  set  at  an  angle 
to  the  currents  caused  by  the  draft,  and  keeps  the  burning  gases 
in  continual  and  very  strong  agitation,  so  that  they  are  thoroughly 
mixed,  and  the  gases  completely  consumed  very  close  to  the  tip  of  the 
burner.  (These  comparisons  may  be  made  somewhat  clearer  by 
reference  to  Fig.  20,  which  indicates  in  a  general  manner  the  course  of 
the  draft  through  the  firebox  of  a  horizontal  boiler.)  This  effect  is  so 
marked  that  while  with  a  coal  fire  it  is  easy  to  get  almost  any  length 
of  flame  desired,  with  oil  burners  special  measures  must  be  taken  to  get 
a  long  flame,  when  for  any  reason  this  is  desirable.  It  is  probable  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  increased  efficiency  of  oil  as  a  fuel  is  due  to  this 
cause:  the  more  complete  combustion  of  the  gases  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
firebox.  With  careful  firing  it  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  reduce  the 
percentage  of  combustible  in  the  flue  gases  to  a  negligible  quantity,  by 
the  use  of  but  a  small  excess  of  air. 

Air  for  Combustion. — The  third  cause  of  the  greater  efficiency  of 
liquid  fuel  lies  in  the  possibility  of  reducing  the  loss  of  heat,  by  reduc- 
ing the  amount  of  air  taken  into  the  firebox.  That  this  is  possible  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  with  an  oil  fire  both  the  draft  and  the  amount  of 
fuel  being  burned  may  be  kept  nearly  constant,  while  with  solid  fuel 
both  the  combustible  and  the  air  supply  are  continually  changing.  The 
amount  of  air  entering  the  firebox  of  a  furnace  burning  coal  under  nat- 
ural draft  is  regulated  by  the  draft  or  pull  of  the  hot  gases  rising  in  the 
stack,  and  the  resistance  to  the  entering  air  offered  by  the  layer  of  fuel, 
and  b}'  the  ashpit  openings.  So  long  as  atmospheric  conditions  remain 
constant,  the  draft  of  the  stack  will  not  change,  and  of  course  the 
resistance  of  the  ashpit  openings  will  not  vary  except  as  intentionally 
changed  by  adjustment  of  the  ash-doors.  It  follows,  then,  that  if  the 
resistance  to  draft  of  the  bed  of  fuel  should  change,  the  other  factors 
being   constant,  the    amount  of  air   entering   the    firebox    would  also 


THK    USE    OF    OIL    FOR    FUEL.  65 

change,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  this  change  will  always  be  in  the 
wrong  direction.  The  densest  part  of  the  tire,  and  therefore  the  part 
most  tending  to  restrict  the  draft,  is  the  layer  of  comparatively  fresh 
fnel  on  top.  As  this  layer  is  gradually  distilled  down  to  coke,  after  the 
addition  of  a  fresh  supply,  it  becomes  more  open,  and  therefore  the 
I  quantity  of  air  passing  through  it  will  increase.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  at  the  time  when  fresh  coal  is  being  distilled  down  to  coke, 
and  therefore  the  greatest  quantity  of  combustible  gas  is  being  given 
off,  that  the  greatest  quantity  of  air  is  needed  to  consume  this  gas  com- 
pletely. As  the  smallest  quantity  of  air  is  passing  through  the  fire  at 
the  time  when  the  greatest  quantity  is  needed,  it  is  evident  that  the 
draft  must  be  so  regulated  that  the  maximum  quantity  will  be  passing 
through  at  all  times,  and  therefore  when  the  bed  of  fuel  is  the  most 
l)urned  out,  that  is,  just  before  refiring,  a  considerable  excess  of  air  will 
be  passing  through  the  firebox  and  carrying  off  heat  with  it  to  the 
stack.  The  extent  of  the  loss  from  this  cause  may  be  greater  or  less 
according  to  circumstances.  In  very  large  fireboxes,  where  the  bed  of 
fuel  is  thick  at  all  times,  it  may  become  very  small,  and  where  large 
quantities  are  required  to  maintain  the  fire,  it  is  possible  to  add  the 
fuel  so  gradually,  especially  if  mechanical  stoking  appliances  are  used, 
as  to  keep  the  conditions  in  the  firebox  practically  uniform.  But  w^here 
the  fires  are  small,  and  particularly  where  they  are  thin,  the  losses 
from  this  source  may  become  a  serious  percentage  of  the  total  value  of 
the  fuel. 

To  sum  up,  we  have  in  favor  of  liquid  fuel,  the  following  points: 
Ease  of  transportation  and  handling. 
Reduction  of  storage  bulk. 

Increased  cleanliness  both  inside  and  outside  of  l)oiler-room. 
Reduced  labor  in  firing. 
Reduced  cos't  per  unit  of  heating  value. 
Increased  percentage  of  efficiency. 
Increased  steaming  capacity  of  generators. 
Greater  ease  of  regulation. 

All  these  advantages  taken  together  make  up  the  well-known  and  (at 
present)  very  great  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  oil.  What  the  saving 
will  be  in  any  particular  case  wall  depend  on  the  relative  importance 
of  the  various  factors,  and  as  these  vary  the  saving  will  vary.  So  that, 
while  we  may  say  with  perfect  safety  that  in  almost  every  case  there 
will  be  considerable  saving  resulting  from  the  use  of  oil  fuel,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  say  just  what  the  saving  will  be  in  any  particular  case, 
except  by  actual  trial,  followed  by  a  ver}^  careful  analysis  of  the  results. 
But   if    we  bring   the    matter  down  to    a  basis  of  comparative   price 


66 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


and  efficiency,  neglecting  such 
matters  as  labor  and  cleanliness 
(generally  of  minor  importance), 
we'may  get  at  some  fairly  accu- 
rate comparisons. 

Horizontal    Boiler   Trials.— 

The  following  table  (No.  5)  con- 
tains a  record  of  tests  made 
with  horizontal  tubular  boilers, 
under  different  conditions.  These 
columns  are  not  strictly  com- 
parable, being  made  with  two 
different  sets  of  apparatus. 

Column  1  gives  results  ob- 
tained by  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
Company,  on  a  stationary  boiler 
in  the  shop  at  San  Bernardino, 
using  19.3°  Fullerton  crude. 

Column  2,  the  same,  but  using 
19.6°  Fullerton  oil. 

Column  3,  the  same,  using  12^ 
Kern  oil. 

The  boiler  used  in  these  three 
tests  was  the  same,  being  a 
60"  X  18'  horizontal  tubular,  with 
1600  square  feet  heating  surface. 
(See  Fig.  20b.)  These  figures 
were  obtained  by  Mr.  0.  S.  Breese 
through  the  courtesy  of  the 
Mechanical' Department,  A.  T.  & 
S.  F.  R.  R. 

Column  4  gives  figures  ob- 
tained with  a  72"  x  18'  hori- 
zontal tubular  boiler  with  one 
hundred  2^"  tubes,  burning 
Beaumont  crude  oil. 

Column  5  gives  figures  made 
with  the  same  boiler,  using 
"buckwheat"  anthracite  coal. 

The  figures  in  these  columns 
(4  and  5)  are  from  a  series  of 
tests  made  by  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton, 
in  November,  1901.  (See  "The 
Engineer,"  February  15,  1902.) 


THK    rSK    OF    on,    KOH    Fl'EL. 


67 


TABLE  5. 


1. 


3. 


Fuel  used lbs.  \  14,142 

(';il(.ritie  value -. H.  T.  [L]  l»,o(IO 

Tlieoreiical  evaporative  I'ower  per   pound    of 

fuel,  from  and  at  212°  F lbs.  i  20.20 


Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212°  F._ 


.IbK.   188,042 


Kvaporation  ixM-jxmnd  of  fuel  as  tii'ed,  jrross  J/>.s'.       13.29 

Steam  used  in  injecting percent 

Net  available  evaporation  per  pound  of  h\e\-lbs. 

Ktlicieney:    percentage  of   theoretical    heating 
value  realized  in  actnal  evaporation     /«>r  cmt  '<     Ho.8 

Evaporation  per  hour  i)er  square  foot  of  heat- ! 
ing  surf  ace lbs.  I       5.45 


17,fil6 
19,5(X) 

20.20 

248,472 

14.10 


Gross. 


Gross. 
B8.8 


i«,:«o 

18,2(KI 

18.85 

219,156 

13.18 


G  ross. 
69.9 


5,393 
19,U>(» 

19.74 

83,542 

15.49 

4.8 

14.75 

Net. 
74.7 

4.08 


5,517 
12,100 

12.53 

49,309 

8.94 


8.94 


Net. 
71.3 


2.21 


The  tables  lielow  give  tlie  details  of  the  tests  suimiiarized  in  columns 
1.  2.  and  >l: 


TABLE  6.     DETAILS  OF  EVAPORATIVE  TESTS  BY  SANTA  FE  RAILROAD. 
Fullerton  Oil.     (See  Column  1  in  Table  5.) 


1)ATE-1 

W2. 

•z. 

1 

Duration 

of 

Test. 

Wateh. 

Oil. 

Water  Kvi 
per  Poun 

-1  c 

is 

'S    " 

:  ^ 

lbs. 
88.5 

deq.F. 
72 

P 
0  0 

r3 

(teg.F.  'I 
94^      ] 

S3 
•< 

Total. 
40,431 

Per 
Hour. 

Total. 

Per 
Hour. 

t  Evap- 
rom  and 

porated 
d  of  Oil. 

0 

August 

16-- 

1 

hrs.  mill. 
5    35 

lbs. 
7,246 

lbs. 
3,515 

lbs. 
630 

lbs. 
It. .50 

lbs. 
13.60 

'g.B. 
19.3 

August 

18-- 

2 

4      0 

29,751 

7,438 

2,690 

673 

11.06 

13.06 

89.1 

73i 

85 

18.8 

August 

18-- 

3 

4    30 

34,045 

7,566 

3,016 

670 

11.29 

13.:36 

91.0 

72 

92        ] 

19.0 

August 

19-- 

4 

4      0 

28,412 

7,103 

2,608 

652 

11.89 

12.93 

90.1 

68i 

82 

* 

August 

19.- 
Ke.. 

.5 

3    3t» 

26,174 

7,478 

2,313 

661 

11.32 

13.42 

88.3 

69 

88 

* 

Avert 

11.23 

1.3.27 

89.4 

71 

88.3 

1 

93 

*Ordiiiarv  Oliiida  crude  oil.  which  will  averaire  l'.t°    B 'rtmni 


68 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


TABLE  7.     DETAILS  OF  EVAPORATIVE  TESTS  BY  SANTA  FE  RAILROAD. 
Fullerton  Oil,     (See  Column  2  in  Table  5.) 


Date-1902. 

e 
0 
c 

TO 

Duration 

of 

Test. 

Water. 

Oil. 

^1 

1-0 -. 

;  3- 
;  3w 

;  0.V 

W 

o 

c  re 
1    "1 

2^ 

O  TO 

r"3 

TO 

•1 

i  •< 

'    o 

Total. 

Per 
Hour. 

Total. 

Per 
Hour. 

;  2 

1    s° 

August  20-- 
August  20.. 

1 

hrs 
4 

min. 
0 

Ihs. 
29,427 

lbs. 
7,357 

lbs. 
2,588 

lbs. 
647 

11.37 

lbs.       lbs. 
13.48     88.5 

69 

desr.F. 
80i 

19.55 

2 

4 

30 

29,681 

5,996 

2,364 

525 

11.41 

13.52     89.3 

70^ 

85i 

19.55 

August  21-- 

3 

4 

0 

26,370 

6,593 

2,190 

548 

12.04 

14.28     89.0 

68i 

85^ 

19.65 

August  21.. 

4 

4 

32 

32,011 

7,066 

2,629 

580 

12.13 

14.37     88.6 

70 

91^ 

19.45 

August  22.. 

5 

4 

0 

29,721 

7,430 

2,577 

644 

11.53 

13.69     89.8 

68i 

84i 

19.80 

August  22.- 

6 

4 

33 

31,369 

6,894 

2,619 

582 

1L84 

14.03     89.0 

70 

93 

19.20 

August  23.. 

7 

4 

0 

30,925 

7,731 

2,649 

662 

11.67 

13.85     89.1 

68i 

84$ 

19.75 

Average 

11.72 

13.89     89.0 

69.3 

86.4 

19.56 

1 

Special  Olinda  oil  from  Santa  Fe  Well  No.  26. 


TABLE  8.     DETAILS  OF  EVAPORATIVE  TESTS  BY  SANTA  FE  RAILROAD. 
Kern  Oil.    (See  Column  3  in  Table  5.) 


p. 

Water. 

Oil. 

so  c  ^ 

2^ 

2^ 

S 

Duration 

%ol 

iOTQ 

O  TO 

Date-1902. 

o 

5 

of 
Test. 

^2 

1   o  '^ 

TO 

_-TO 

2  ^ 

°2 

o 

Total. 

Per 

Total. 

Per 

O 

: 

Hour. 

Hour. 

r-o- 

TO 

1      TO 
1      •"* 

p 

hrs.  min. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Ibs. 

Jbs.        I 

bs. 

deg.F. 

deg.F.  di 

'.Q.B. 

October  23.. 

1 

3    28 

29,195 

7,549 

2,404 

693 

10.90 

12.95     £ 

3.1 

68 

110    .- 

October  23. - 

2 

4      0 

28,058 

7,015 

2,506 

627 

11.19 

13.27     J 

«.4 

67i 

124      ] 

3.8 

October  24.- 

3 

4      1 

28,506 

7,091 

2,567 

639 

n.io 

13.21     S 

10.0 

65 

117      ] 

3.4 

October  24.. 

4 

3    50 

24,110 

6,295 

2,170 

567 

11.11 

13.21     8 

7.8 

66 

144      ] 

1.7 

October  25.. 

5 

4      0 

21,900 

5,475 

1,936 

484 

11.31 

13.48     fl 

3.6 

64^ 

140      ] 

1.2 

October  28.. 

6 

4      0 

26,019 

6,505 

2,302 

576 

11.30 

13.45     8 

9.7 

65i 

147      1 

1.4 

October  28.. 

7 

4      0 

26,687 

6,672 

2,445 

611 

10.92 

12.90     9 

1.0 

72 

160      ] 

0.9 

Average.. 

1L12 

13.21     8 

0.2 

67 

135      1 

''  1 

Evaporation  per  Pound. — These  tests,  of  which  a  hirge  number 
might  be  quoted,  would  seem  to  justify  tlie  statement  that,  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  oil  burned  under  horizontal  tu])ular  boilers  should 
give  an  evaporation  of  from  13^  to  15  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of 
oil.     To  compare  this  with  the  performance  of  coal  is  a  very  difficult 


THE    USE    OF    OIL    FOR    FUEL. 


69 


matter,  as  while  almost  all  kinds  of  (clean)  oil  give  about  the  same 
results  under  identical  conditions,  it  is  well  known  that  the  evapora- 
tive power  of  different  coals  varies  enormously.  There  is  considerable 
<-oal  sold  on  the  Pacific  Coast  which  will  not  evaporate  more  than  5 
pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  coal  as  tired,  while  others  can  be  made 
to  evaporate  as  high  as  11  pounds.  But  it  is  probably  fair  (to  the  coal, 
at  least)  to  say  that  run-of-mine  steam  coal,  as  shipped  into  San  Fran- 
cisco, will  average  not  far  from  8  pounds  actual  evaporation  from  and 
at  212°  F.  at  an  efficiency  of  70%,  equal  to  a  theoretical  evaporative 
power  of  11.4  pounds,  or  a  calorific  value  of  11,340  B.  T.  U. 

At  an  average  evaporation  of  8  pounds  for  coal  and  14  pounds  for  oil, 
1  pound  of  oil  would  be  directly  equal  to  If  pounds  of  coal,  or  one  ton 
(2240  lbs.)  of  coal  to  1280  pounds  or  3.8  barrels  of  oil.  So  when  we 
say  that  four  barrels  of  oil  are  eqvial  to  a  ton  of  coal  for  steam  making, 
the  expression,  Avhile  entirely  true  and  conservative  as  applied  to  aver- 
age fuels  and  local  conditions,  may  not  hold  good  in  every  case. 

Comparison  of  Costs. — With  oil  at  65  cents  per  barrel,  coal  which 
will  evaporate  5  pounds  of  water,  per  pound  is  worth,  in  comparison, 
$1.56  per  long  ton.  Average  coast  coal,  good  for  an  evaporation  of  8 
pounds  of  water,  is  worth  $2.48,  while  very  high-grade  coals,  capable  of 
evaporating  11  pounds  of  water  per  pound,  are  w'orth  $3.40  per  ton  for 
steam  generation  in  competition  with  oil. 

The  table  following  shows  the  relative  actual  cost  of  coal  and  oil  at 
various  prices  for  each.  This  table  is  based  on  a  relative  value  of  four 
barrels  of  oil  to  the  (long)  ton  of  coal,  and  the  figures  given  show  the 
cost,  at  various  rates  per  ton,  of  the  amount  of  coal  required  to  do  the 
work  of  an  amount  of  oil  costing  ^1,  at  the  different  prices  named  for  oil. 


TABLE  9.     COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  COAL  AND  OIL. 


COAL- 

OIL— per  Barrel. 

per 

Ton. 

$1  00 

$0  95 

10  90 

$0  85 

$0  80 

$0  75 

$0  70 

$0  65 

.$0  60 

$0  55 

$0  50 

,$4  00 

.$1  00 

.$1  05 

$1  11 

|1  18 

|1  25 

$1  33 

$1  43 

$1  54 

$1  66 

.|1  82 

.$2  00 

4  50 

1  12 

1  18 

1  25 

1  32 

1  41 

1  50 

1  61 

1  73 

1  87 

2  04 

2  25 

o  00 

1  25 

1  32 

1  39 

1  47 

1  57 

1  66 

1  79 

1  92 

2  08 

2  27 

2  50 

5  50 

1  37 

1  45 

1  53 

1  62 

1  72 

1  83 

1  96 

2  11 

2  29 

2  50 

2  75 

6  00 

1  50 

1  58 

1  67 

1  77 

1  88 

2  00 

2  14 

2  31 

2  50 

2  73 

3  00 

€  50 

1  67 

1  71 

1  81 

1  91 

2  03 

2  17 

2  32 

2  50 

2  71 

2  95 

3  25 

7  00 

1  75 

1  84 

1  94 

2  06 

2  19 

2  33 

2  50 

2  69 

2  92 

3  18 

3  50 

7  50 

1  87 

1  97 

2  08 

2  21 

2  34 

2  50 

2  68 

2  88 

3  13 

3  41 

3  75 

8  00 

2  00 

2  11 

2  22 

2  35 

2  .50 

2  67 

2  86 

3  08 

3  33 

3  64 

4  00 

70  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  in  makinji  comparisons  of  this 
sort,  that  no  general  rule  can  give  other  than  average  results.  In 
some  cases  the  coal  would  make  a  better  showing  tlian  the  al)ove,  in 
others  worse,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  coal,  the  quality  of  thr 
oil,  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done.  The  above  figures  j)urport 
only  to  compare  the  ordinary  British  Columitia  coal  of  fair  (quality, 
with  an  average  grade  of  Kern  River  or  similar  oil.  for  use  in  steam 
generation  under  normal  conditions. 

As  an  illustration:  In  Sacramento,  average  steam  coal  is  quoted  at 
$7.50,  carloads,'  while  fuel  oil  sells  at  65  cents.  At  these  rates  the 
steam  user  receiving  an  ordinary  grade  of  coal  pays  at  least  two  and 
nine-tenths  times  as  much  for  his  fuel  as  his  competitor  using  oil,  or 
in  other  words,  his  ton  of  coal  could  be  replaced  by  oil  costing  $2.60. 

At  Salinas,  coal  is  quoted  at  $7.00,  oil  at  80  cents,'^  making  coal  cost 
some  two  and  two-tenths  times  as  much  as  oil,  or  $3.20  for  oil  to  replace 
a  ton  of  coal. 

At  Los  Angeles,  fuel  oil  is  sold  at  75  cents,  coal  at  $8  up.'  A  ton  of 
$8  coal  at  Los  Angeles  costs  about  two  and  six-tenths  times  the  price  of 
an  equivalent  amount  of  oil,  the  latter  being  $8  or  less  per  ton  e(|uiva- 
lent. 

At  Santa  Barbara,  steam  coal  is  (juoted  at  $9.50  per  ton.  Sunnuer- 
land  oil  at  80  cents  per  barrel.*  This  makes  the  cost  of  coal  about  three 
times  that  of  oil,  the  cost  of  the  oil  to  replace  a  ton  of  coal  being  not 
far  from  $8.20. 

At  Redding,  pine  wood  is  quoted  at  $8.50  per  cord.*  A  cord  of  pine 
wood  equals,  roughly  speaking,  two  and  one-half  barrels  of  fuel  oil. 
The  latter  can  be  laid  down  at  Redding,  carloads,  for  $1.06  per  barrel, 
or  $2.65  for  the  equivalent  of  a  cord  of  wood. 

At  San  Luis  Obispo,  oil  is  quoted  at  75  cents,  wood  at  $4.50  per  cord.* 
At  this  rate,  a  cord  of  wood  costs  some  two  and  four-tenths  times  as 
much  as  an  equivalent  quantity  of  oil,  the  cost  of  the  latter  being  $L88 
for  the  equivalent  of  a  cord  of  wood. 

At  Auburn,  pine  wood  is  quoted  at  $4  })er  cord;  fuel  oil  can  be  had  at 
97^  cents  per  barrel.'  This  makes  wood  cost  at  least  twenty-three  per 
cent  more  than  oil,  although  Auburn  is  situated  very  close  to  a  timbered 
country,  and  far  from  oil  supply. 

It  would  seem  that  oil  can  compete  with  solid  fuel  at  all  parts  of  the 
State,  except  perhaps  in  upper  Mendocino  and  in  Humboldt  County. 

1  Communication  from  Sacramento  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

■''Communication  from  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Salinas,  February  13,  1904. 

'Communication  from  Los  Angeles  Cliamber  of  Commerce,  January  15,  1904. 

♦Communication  from  A.  W.  Grant,  Summerhind. 

» Communication  from  Board  of  Trade,  Redding. 

^Comnmnication  from  Board  of  Trade,  San  Luis  Obispo,  .January  20,  19W. 

'Communication  from  Placer  County  Improvement  and  Development  Association. 


IN.IKC'TION    AND    BUHNEKS.  71 

CHAPTER  (>. 
INJECTION  AND  BURNERS. 

Tlu'  Hrst  lU'ccssity  in  huniinu;  fuel  oil  ccoiioniiciilly  is  to  atomize  the 
oil  tinely  into  tlie  tircbox.  Whether  steam  or  air  be  used  as  the  injeet- 
inti'  agent,  the  oil  must  be  broken  by  it  into  the  linest  possible  spray, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  steam  or  air  used  nuist  1)e  reduced  to  tiie 
smallest  possible  (juantity,  both  on  account  of  the  i-ost  of  steam  oi'  (.f 
compressed  air,  and  on  account  of  the  waste  of  heat  due  to  use  of  an 
excess  of  either.  The  necessity  of  atomizing  tlie  oil  completely  is  prob- 
ably apparent  enough,  yet  a  short  explanation  may  make  it  clearer  to 
some  who  have  not  thought  out  the  process  by  which  oil  is  consumed 
in  the  tireljox. 

It  is  well  known  that  before  liquid  fuel  can  be  consumed  by  the  aii- 
passing  through  the  tirebox,  it  must  be  converted  to  a  state  of  vapor  by 
the  radiant  heat  of  the  firebox  walls.  When  oils  are  vaporized,  oi- 
more  simply,  boiled,  they  leave  behind  a  residue  of  coke.  So  when  a 
particle  of  oil  leaves  the  nose  of  the  burner,  it  inunediately  commences 
to  evaporate  in  the  high  heat  of  the  furnace,  at  the  same  time  traveling 
across  the  furnace  with  the  velocity  imparted  to  it  by  the  steam  jet, 
until  the  liquid  portion  is  completely  changed  to  gas,  when  the  residue, 
a  tiny  speck  of  coke,  will  also  burn.  But  if  the  drop  leaving  the  nose 
of  the  burner  is  too  large  to  evaporate  completely  in  the  time  it  takes 
to  travel  across  the  furnace,  the  residue  will  not  be  burned,  but  will  be 
projected  against  the  target,  side  wall,  or  bridge,  whatever  solid  body 
happens  to  be  in  its  way,  and  will  stick  there.  If  the  particles  striking 
the  target  or  other  obstruction  are  dry  carbon,  the  deposit  of  carbon 
formed  on  the  target  will  not  be  very  hard,  and  will  burn  off  in  the 
course  of  time,  if  the  accumulation  stops  for  any  cause;  but  if  the  par- 
ticles are  of  the  consistency  of  asphalt,  as  is  more  likely  to  be  the  case, 
they  will  form  a  carbon  deposit  of  great  hardness.  This  carbon  deposit 
is  necessarily  formed  in  the  axis  of  the  jet  cast  by  the  burner,  that  is, 
in  the  line  where  the  jet  of  flame  impinging  on  the  wall  is  turned  out 
and  ])ack  by  the  resistance,  and  being  thus  in  the  center  of  the  Hanie  is 
practically  protected  from  the  air  currents  of  the  firebox.  Thus  })ro- 
tected,  it  of  course  can  not  burn  off,  and  will  accumulate  just  so  long 
as  the  supply  of  unburned  oil  continues. 

This  deposit  of  carbon  causes  a  number  of  undesirable  results.  In 
the  first  place,  it  wastes  an  appreciable  portion  of  the  fuel.  Then  again, 
oil  thus  thrown  against  furnace  walls  or  targets  vaporizes  slowly  and 
imperfectly,  and  the  vapor,  being  drawn  along  the  fire-floor,  does  not 
mix  readily  with  the  air  supply,  but  is  likely  to  be  drawn  out  partly 
unburned,  causing  waste  and  smoke.     And  finally,  if  a  boiler  furnact; 


72  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

particularly  is  being  forced  to  its  utmost  capacity,  a  deposit  of  carbon 
is  likely  to  seriously  disturb  the  draft  conditions  of  the  furnace,  causing 
great  waste  and  a  loss  of  steaming  capacity.  This  is  particularly 
objectionable  in  the  small  fireboxes  of  locomotives,  where  the  carbon 
ironi  an  imperfectly  adjusted  burner  may  have  to  be  broken  down  at 
frequent  intervals  to  enable  the  engine  to  hold  its  steam. 

In  internally  fired  boilers  the  necessity  of  complete  atomization  is 
still  more  strongly  felt.  It  is  apparent  that  the  smaller  tlie  ])articles 
of  oil  leaving  the  burner,  the  finer  will  be  the  carbon  dust  left  V)y  the 
evaporation  of  these  particles.  As  carbon  burns  slowly  compared  with 
gas,  the  portion  of  the  flame  farthest  from  the  burner  will  be  due  in 
large  part  to  solid  carbon,  and  the  larger  and  slower  burning  these 
particles  of  carbon,  the  longer  will  be  the  flame.  If  the  flame  be  too 
long,  in  such  a  boiler  as  this,  it  will  reach  the  back  connection  sheet, 
causing  injury  to  it  and  to  the  staybolt  heads,  while  t<t  protect  these 
parts  with  firebrick  materially  reduces  the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler. 

Types  of  Bupners. — To  meet  the  necessity  for  perfect  atomization, 
and  to  minimize  the  quantity  of  steam  or  air  required  to  do  the  work 
in  the  best  manner,  a  great  variety  of  burners,  simple  and  complicated, 
has  been  invented.  Many  of  these  contrivances  show  great  ingenuity, 
and  bear  very  little  resemblance,  in  appearance,  to  the  original,  yet  in 
principle  there  has  been  no  departure  from  the  method  devised  some 
fifty  years  ago,  the  only  burners  embodying  a  new  principle  (the 
retorting  or  gasifying  burners)  having  fallen  into  practical  disuse  some 
time  since. 

Essentially,  the  oil  burner  is  simply  a  spray,  resembling  very  closely 
the  ordinary  steam  jet  ejector,  a  stream  of  steam  or  air  (any  other  gas 
would  do  as  well)  being  depended  on  to  break  a  smaller  stream  of  oil 
into  minute  drops,  and  to  throw  these  with  some  force  from  the  nozzle  of 
the  burner.  The  first  and  most  important  point  in  the  proper  working 
of  a  burner  is,  as  has  already  been  noted,  to  break  the  oil  into  the 
finest  possible  drops,  and  this  Avith  the  least  possible  consumption  of 
the  atomizing  agent,  whether  steam  or  air.  Other  points  of  more  or 
less  importance  are:  that  the  burner  should  throw  a  flame  of  length  and 
size  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  firebox,  that  the  oil  should  be  com- 
pletely consumed  without  the  formation  of  smoke  or  of  carbon  deposits, 
that  the  flame  should  be  steady  and  not  too  noisy,  that  the  burner 
should  be  readily  regulated  without  tedious  adjustment  and  readjust- 
ment of  steam  to  oil,  that  the  burner  should  be  capable  of  carrying  a 
small  flame  without  breaking,  and  of  throwing  a  clear  flame  into  a  cold 
firebox,  and  finally  that  the  burner  proper  should  be  durable,  not 
readily  burned  if  left  to  stand  unused  in  place  in  a  hot  furnace,  and 
that  it  should  not  be  likely  to  become  choked,  either  in  use,  from  dirt 


INJECTION    AND    BURNERS.  73 

in  the  oil,  or  when  turned  off,  from  e;irl)()nization  of  oil  remaining  in 
the  burner. 

Even  were  it  possible,  from  the  point  of  view  of  space,  to  point  out 
the  relative  merits  of  all  the  burners  on  the  market,  this  would  hardly 
be  the  place  to  do  so.  But  it  may  be  pertinent  to  describe  brieiiy  the 
most  important  fypefi  of  injectors,  showing  the  efforts  which  have  been 
made  to  overcome  particular  defects  or  to  secure  particular  advantages, 
and  leaving  it  to  individual  judgment  to  select  the  type  most  suitable 
to  the  work  in  hand. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  particular  makes  of  burners  here  illus- 
trated were  not  selected  on  their  merits,  but  such  were  taken  as  showed 
the  typical  principle  in  the  most  comprehensible  manner.  As  practi- 
cally all  burners  are  patented  contrivances,  it  was  necessary  to  give 
the  names  of  the  burners  illustrated,  but  no  recommendation  or  dis- 
crimination is  intended,  the  remarks  applying  to  the  general  type  only. 

The  original  and  simplest  form  is  the  pipe  burner,  as  shown  at  "A"  in 
Fig.  21.  This  probably  needs  no  explanation;  the  sizes  of  the  tubes, 
which  are  ordinary  black  pipe,  are  governed  by  the  amount  of  oil  to  be 
burned,  and  by  other  conditions,  but  in  general  a  burner  made  up  from 
1"  outside  and  ^"  inside  will  meet  the  usual  requirements.  The  length 
is  varied  with  the  thickness  of  furnace  front  through  which  the  burner 
is  to  extend,  and  need  not  be  greater  than  enough  to  allow  for  4"  or  5" 
projection  inside,  there  being  little  if  any  advantage  in  longer  tubes. 
The  steam  opening  may  Avith  advantage  be  bushed  to  |",  and  should 
have  a  globe  valve  of  the  best  quality,  the  packing  on  the  valve  stem 
being  jammed  up  enough  to  make  the  valve  work  rather  stiff.  The  oil 
end  should  have  a  brass  needle  valve,  preferably  one  with  a  long  steel 
needle,  which  is  considerably  more  sensitive  than  the  ordinary  short 
needle.  The  opening  in  these  small  valves  may  have  to  be  drilled  out 
to  nearly  the  size  of  the  body  of  needle,  if  either  oil  or  Avork  to  be  done 
is  very  heavy.  The  discharge  ends  of  both  oil  and  steam  pipes  should 
be  drawn  down  to  a  round,  true  hole  of  the  proper  size;  the  size  of  the 
oil  opening  is  not  of  much  importance,  except  that  it  should  be  large 
enough  to  carry  the  full  opening  of  the  oil  valve.  The  size  of  the 
nozzle  on  outer  pipe  is  a  very  particular  matter,  and  requires  some  care, 
yet  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down,  as  the  proper  size  will  vary  with 
a  number  of  conditions.  It  is  well  to  make  it  small  in  the  first  place, 
from  iV  to  i",  and  ream  out  from  time  to  time,  after  trial,  until  the 
best  results  are  had. 

Where  a  flat  flame  is  desired  (the  round  nozzle  natvirally  throws  a 
round  or  cone-shaped  flame)  the  arrangement  shoAvn  in  "B  "  may  be  used. 
This  is  simply  a  collar  on  the  end  of  outer  tube,  holding  a  hollow  plug 
which  has  been  slotted  through  with  a  hack  saw.  The  contrivance  is 
rough,  but  can  be  made  in  a  few  minutes,  is  easy  to  replace  at  any  time, 


<4  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

and  if  dressed   out    witli  a  tine  warding  or  knife-edge  file  to  the  proper 
widtli  of  opening,  can  be  made  to  give  excellent  results. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  carry  a  very  small  flame,  the  burner  shown  at 
"  C  "  may  be  used  with  good  results.  The  construction  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  pipe  burner,  except  that  within  the  outer  tube  are  slipped  blank 
nii)ples  of    the  next  size   smaller  pipe   {e.   r/.,  |"  in  a   1"  outer  tube). 


E^ 


"A" 


uggl 


"C" 


v?^j:ff7^!7>,^:y?a-^,'^g^fi:Si^j??:yy— ^^ 


Fig.  21.     Forms  of  "  Pipe  Bunu-rs." 

alternatin<i  witli  discs  of  tliiu  ii'on  or  brass,  these  discs  with  punched 
holes  arranged  in  a  circle,  or  better,  witli  di-illed  holes  placed  at  an 
angle  with  the  a.xis  of  the  Inirner.  This  burner,  when  propei-ly 
adjusted  (which  recjuires  care),  atomizes  (|uite  finely,  and  may  ])e  made 
to<'arry  a  small  Hanie  without  l)reaking.  When  the  flame  is  to  l)e  ve)-v 
small,  liowe\-er,  particnlai'ly  if  tlie  temperature  of  the  firebox  is  low,  tlie 


INJECTION    AND    BUHNERS. 


75 


steam  used  should  be  superheated,  and  if  possible  a  combustion  chamber 
should  be  arranged  in  front  of  the  burner,  in  order  to  have  a  radiating 
surface  close  to  the  flame.  In  extreme  cases  it  may  be  impossible,  by 
any  arrangement,  to  carry  a  small  flame  and  a  low  heat  with  heavy 
ciude,  and  in  this  case  a  light  crude  or  a  distillate  must  be  used. 

The  pipe  burner  is  an  "inside  mixing"  burner;  that  is,  steam  and 
oil  are  brought  into  contact  inside  the  outer  shell,  and  therefore  l)aek 


"INSfDE  MIXIN(S"BURNER 

BLOCK  TYPE 

(HAMMEL   BURNER) 

Lonqitudmal  SeititntFactEleuihen 


I 

i  li  Mill      L 

Im                             '^' 

jnTiT.  ! 
ii!i   1  i 

il 

|l 

ilL 

-jj, 

IP— 

-<yH|| 

1  : 

i 

1    i!ii 

I 

of  the  jet.  A  modification  of  this  form  is  found  in  the  block  type 
(Fig.  22),  in  which  mixture  is  effected  inside  a  heavy  metallic  block. 
This  type  of  burner,  of  which  there  are  a  nvimber  of  varieties,  has  the 
advantage  of  simplicity,  may  be  readily  cleaned,  and  occupies  little 
space.     It  makes  little  or  no  attempt  to  heat  the  oil  before  ejecting,  and 


Repriiuciii frm  " Rifiort if  Ihe  'LiiiJiarijel'os/'rJ" 
Bunojifittum  Engimenng,  U  5  Naff,  WL 


Figure  8  3 

"OUTSIDE  MIXIN6"  BURNER 

TUBULAR  TYPE 

ROUND  FLAriE 

(OIL   CITY  BOILER  WORKS) 

L  ongituctinal  Sec  tion 


if  heavy  oil  is  used,  the  latter  must  be  heated.  The  burner  illustrated 
throws  a  flat,  fan-shaped  flame,  but  others  of  this  form  are  arranged  to 
throw  a  round  flame,  the  difference  being  purely  in  the  shape  of  the 
nozzle.  Burners  of  this  class  should  be  designed  for  the  particular 
work  to  be  done,  as  they  do  not  work  very  well  if  conditions  of  steam 
and  oil  pressure  are  much  varied;  they  also  have  a  strong  tendency  to 


76 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


clog  in  the  slit,  by  the  formation  of  hard  carbon,  and  are  not  readily- 
cleared  while  in  place. 

In  "outside  mixing"  burners,  oil  and  steam  are  brought  in  contact 
outside  of  the  outer  shell;  that  is,  instead  of  ejecting  a  mixture  of  steam 
and  of  oil  globules  from  the  nose  of  the  burner,  the  steam  and  oil 
are  thrown  out  from  separate  jets,  the  oil  stream  being  then  caught 
up  and  sprayed  by  the  velocity  of  the  steam  jet.  In  the  tubular  type 
shown  in  Fig.  23,  a  hollow  jet  of  steam  converges  on  a  stream  of  oil 
within  a  funnel-shaped  bell,  giving  a  wide  and  short  flame,  known  as 
the  "  rose  flame,"  very  suitable  under  water-tube  boilers,  or  in  other 


Figure  2 A 

"0UT5IDE  MIXING"  BURNER 

STUB  TYPE 

aflT  FLAME 

(\A/-  N  -  BEST  BURNER  1 

Longitudinal  SicliitniFace  Elitatiir 


situations  where  a  wide,  short  flame  is  desired.  In  other  burners  of 
this  general  type,  the  shape  of  the  tip  is  such  as  to  throw  a  longer  and 
more  solid  flame.  Many  burners  of  this  type  are  provided  with  an 
arrangement  by  which  the  width  of  the  steam  orifice  may  be  varied,  a 
very  desirable  feature,  as  it  enables  the  burner  to  work  well  over  a 
much  wider  range  of  conditions  than  is  possible  with  a  burner  with 
apertures  of  fixed  size. 

In  the  stub  type  of  "outside  mixing"  burners  (Fig.  24)  a  jet  of  steam 
blows  the  oil  from  a  shelf  or  pan  below,  or  in  other  types  the  oil  falls 
from  above  into  the  jet  of  steam,  each  method  having  some  advantages. 


Rqui-e  25 
■•IN5IDE  MX1N6"  BURNER 

STUB  TYPE 

ROTARY  aAME 

(UNION  DROP F0R6E BURNER) 

LnjiUinJ  Sutim 

SCALE 


In  burners  of  this  class  it  is  most  necessary  to  have  some  arrangement 
for  (controlling  the  width  of  the  steam  aperture,  as  otherwise  they 
will  not  carry  a  clear  flame  when  burning  low.  When  properly  pro- 
portioned, this  form  of  burner  has  the  same  advantages  as  the  tubular 
form,  but  requires  some  little  skill  in  adjustment  to  get  the  best  results. 
Fig.  25  illustrates  an  "inside  mixing"  burner  in  which  the  mixture 
is  effected  by  rotating  the  steam  column  within  the  tube  by  means  of 
spiral  ridges.     In  the  burner  shown,  steam  is  taken  into  the  tube  at 


INJECTION    AND    BURNERS. 


7T 


two  points,  in  others  of  this  form  at  one  only;  the  difference  is  not  very 
a|)i)arent.  These  burners  throw  a  cone-shaped  Hanie,  rather  shorter 
than  tliat  thrown  by  the  simple  tubular  burner;  the  greater  tiie  degree- 
of  rotation  attained,  the  shorter  will  be  the  flame.  Like  all  "inside 
mixing"  burners  these  have  the  disadvantage  that  there  is  no  regula- 
tion of  the  steam  orifice,  and  therefore  the  velocity  of  tlic  jet,  and  with 
it  the  t'iliciency,  falls  when  turned  low. 


Rqure  2G 


FLAT  FLAME 

(AMERICAN  CRUDE  BURNER) 

iort^fuJinal  Section 

In  burners  of  the  "chamber  mixing"  type  (Fig.  26)  the  oil  is  atom- 
ized by  the  first  jet,  and  the  mixture  of  steam  and  oil  globules  passes- 
through  one  or  more  chambers,  often  being  finally  ejected  by  a  second 
steam  supply.  The  burner  illustrated  throws  a  flat  flame  through  a 
slit,  while  a  round  nozzle  would  throw  a  cone-shaped  flame.  The  com- 
plication of  parts  in  burners  of  this  class,  of  Avhich  there  are  several 
types,  is  a  disadvantage,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  passing  of  the 


mixture  through  and  around  ridges,  corrugations,  coiled  wires,  etc.,. 
assists  in  reducing  the  size  of  the  oil  particles  finally  ejected,  and 
secures  better  atomization. 

In  Fig.  27  is  shown  a  burner  of  the  same  general  class,  the  difference 
being  that  here  the  jet  of  steam  is  used  also  as  an  aspirator,  to  draw 
through  the  burner  a  stream  of  air,  previously  heated  by  passage 
through  flues  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  furnace. 

Fig.   28  shows   a   form  of  burner  in  which  both  steam    and  air  are 


78 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


used,  the  steam  jet  atomizing  the  oil  tliroiigh  the  inner  bell,  while  a 
stream  of  air. passes  out  with  the  mixture  through  the  outer  bell.  The 
object  of  the  secondary  air  supply,  whether  aspirated  by  the  burner  or 
forced  in  l)y  a  blower,  is  to  shorten  the  Hanic  and  add  to  its  intensity, 


fleflropuccd  fr:m  "Repert  of  the  Litiuid  Fuel  Boi>rd' 
Bureau  of  5tc^m  En^inetnn^,  U  5 Kayy,  /'^^^ 


28 


y  SUa.m 


USIN6  STEAM  AND  AIR 
(FM.REED  BURNER) 

L  ongitudinal  Section. 


and  where  large  amounts  of  oil  have  to  be  burned  in  small  fireboxes, 
as  in  [marine  or  locomotive  work,  the  theory  at  least  is  good.  The 
complication  of  such  arrangements  is  troublesome,  and  where  air  is 
taken  in  through  the  burner,  the  flame  is  likely  to  be  extremely  noisy. 


Figure  29 

mmm  burner 

TUBULAR  TYPE 

ROTARY  FLAME 

(SRUNDELL-TUCKER  BURNER) 

/  nnqitudinal  Section 


An  air-operated  burner  of  the  tubular  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  29,  the 
oil  passing  out  of  the  inner  tube  through  small  holes  at  right  angles  to 
the  stream  of  air,  which  latter  has  been  set  rotating  by  the  spiral  slots 
shown,  and  the  mixture  ejected  in  a  hollow  cone  from  the  adjustable 
ring  nose.     This  burner  does  not  differ  in  any  essential  principle  from 


INJECTION    AND   BURNERS.  79^ 

i^ome  steam  burners,  though  the  adjustment  for  air  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  required  for  steam. 

Selection  of  Burner.— In  the  selection  of  an  oil  burner,  the  first 
consideration  is  its  adaptability  to  the  work  to  be  done,  as  no  one  burner 
will  answer  for  all  situations  if  the  greatest  economy  and  l)est  results 
are  required.  If  a  small,  steady  tire  is  to  be  kept  up,  and  particularly 
if  noise  is  objectionable,  a  burner  of  the  "chamber  mixing"  type  will 
usually  be  found  the  most  satisfactory.  The  more  thoroughly  the  oil  is 
atomized  within  the  burner  body,  the  less  will  be  the  velocity  of  tlie  steam 
jet  from  the  burner  nose;  and  other  things  being  equal,  the  noise  pro- 
duced by  a  burner  is  proportional  to  the  velocity  of  the  jet.  If  the 
work  to  be  done  is  heavy,  without  great  fluctuations,  a  simpler  type  of 
tubular  burner  will  give  as  good  results,  with  less  liability  to  break- 
downs; in  hard,  steady  firing  a  very  important  point  is  that  the  burner 
should  be  readily  kept  clean,  both  at  the  nose  and  within  the  tubes, 
and  that  it  should  be  easy  to  replace  without  loss  of  time.  Where  the 
demands  for  steam  are  variable,  an  "outside  mixing"  burner  with 
adjustable  steam  orifice  will  respond  to  regulation  more  readily  than 
other  types.  To  secure  intense  local  heat,  an  air-injecting  burner  may 
be  used,  though  the  same  results  may  often  be  obtained  by  manipula- 
tion of  the  draft. 

Adjustment. — Whatever  type  of  burner  is  used,  it  must  be  adjusted 
to  the  particular  conditions  to  be  met.  The  size  of  the  flame  must  be 
adjusted  to  the  dimensions  of  the  firebox,  by  varying  the  relative  sizes 
of  the  openings.  It  is  evident  that  the  flame  proper  should  never  reach 
any  metallic  parts,  nor  should  it  impinge  too  strongly  on  the  walls. 
Owing  to  the  intense  heat  of  an  oil  fire,  even  the  best  fire-brick  will 
soon  crumble  or  melt  if  set  too  far  up  in  the  flame;  and  if  the  flame 
strikes  the  wall  at  short  range,  carbon  deposits  are  hard  to  avoid.  If 
the  firebox  is  wide  and  flat,  a  slotted  nozzle  burner  of  some  kind  should 
be  used,  and  the  flame  be  spread  evenly  over  the  whole  surface  without 
directly  playing  on  the  side  walls  or  the  shell;  while  in  a  long,  narrow 
firebox  a  round  nozzle  is  better,  that  the  nearest  and  hottest  part  of 
the  flame  may  be  kept  from  the  walls.  When  the  firebox  is  short  and 
deep,  as  with  a  water-tube  or  an  internally-fired  boiler,  a  rose-flame 
burner  may  be  so  set  as  to  carry  the  fire  very  close  to  the  burner,  and 
reduce  danger  of  burning  lower  tubes  or  back  connections.  Where 
water-tube  boilers  are  forced  hard,  this  is  often  a  very  difficult  matter, 
requiring  much  skill  and  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  engineer.  Some 
■contrivances  for  this  purpose  are  shown  in  a  later  paragraph. 

Installation. — Where  any  considerable  amount  of  fuel  is  to  be  used, 
it  is  economy  to  put  the  installation  of  the  burners  in  the  hands  of  a 
person   or  firm  skilled  in  the  work.     The  adjustment  of  an  oil  burner 

6— BUL.  32 


80  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

to  give  the  best  results  is  a  very  delicate  matter,  requiring  special 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  engineer  or  mechanic,  and  the  increased  cost 
of  installation  by  an  expert  will  soon  be  returned  in  added  economy, 
and  reduced  wear  and  tear  on  boilers  and  settings.  A  good  burner, 
carefully  adjusted,  under  a  water-tube  boiler,  should  consume  approxi- 
mately 4%  of  the  steam  generated  by  the  l)oiler  when  running  at  or 
near  rated  capacity.  As  the  steam  used  ])y  the  burner  must  be  heated 
in  the  firebox  to  at  least  stack  temperature  before  being  discharged 
from  the  flues,  every  per  cent  of  steam  used  by  the  burner  reduces  the 
available  energy  of  the  fuel  by  from  1^%  to  1-^%.  A  burner  consuming 
6%  of  the  steam  generated  by  the  boiler,  not  an  uncommon  occurrence, 
is  eating  up  not  less  than  7%  of  the  fuel,  perhaps  even  10%,  while  from 
3%  to  5%  of  this  loss  is  absolute  waste. 

Economy  in  steam  consumption  seems,  from  the  results  of  a  number 
of  competitive  tests,  to  depend  much  less  on  the  form  of  the  burner 
than  on  the  adaptability  of  that  form  to  the  special  use,  and  on  the 
skill  exercised  in  the  adjustment  of  the  mechanism.  The  question  is 
often  debated  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  various  patented  burners, 
and  their  superiority  to  the  simpler  and  unpatented  forms.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  patented  burners,  when  installed  by  their 
inventors  (naturally,  men  skilled  in  their  adjustment),  give  better  results 
than  are  ordinarily  had  with  home-made  burners  installed  by  mechan- 
ics of  no  special  skill  in  the  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  an  expert  can,  with  the  simplest  form  of  pipe  burner, 
nearly  if  not  quite  equal  the  best  performance  of  the  more  expensive 
types.  So  while  it  is  undoubtedly  good  policy  to  entrust  the  installa- 
tion of  a  large  fuel-oil  plant  to  an  oil-burner  man,  yet  no  prospective 
small  consumer  should  be  deterred  from  the  use  of  oil  by  the  cost  of 
burners,  as  with  care  and  the  special  skill  which  comes  Avith  practice 
the  best  results  may  be  obtained,  and  even  with  the  crudest  contriv- 
ances the  cost  of  liquid  fuel  may  be  made  much  less  than  that  of  either 
coal  or  wood. 

Compressed  Air. — The  idea  of  using  compressed  air  in  place  of  steam 
as  an  injecting  agent  in  oil  burners  early  suggested  itself ,  as  it  can  readily 
be  shown  that  the  steam  required  to  compress  the  air  for  a  burner  is  but  a 
small  fraction  of  the  amount  required  for  the  burner  itself.  There  was 
thought  to  be  the  further  advantage  that  the  air  would  be  supplied  at 
the  point  most  needed,  at  the  center  of  the  flame,  and  thus  assist  com- 
bustion. It  seems  now  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  burners  worked 
with  air  at  high  pressure  throw  too  fierce  and  concentrated  a  flame,  dif- 
ficult to  handle,  and  likely  to  burn  out  walls  and  boilers  unless  care- 
fully controlled.  There  is  the  further  drawback  that  the  necessary 
apparatus  and  first  cost  are  greatly  increased,  and  that  breakdowns  are 


THE    FIREBOX. 


81 


much  more  likely,  nevertheless  where  water  is  expensive,  as  on  ship- 
board, the  system  is  very  generally  used.  Some  very  satisfactory 
installations  use  air  at  low  pressure  (two  to  ten  ounces).  The  results 
seem  to  be  better  as  regards  both  economy  and  control  of  fire.  The 
burners  used  with  both  systems  are  practically  identical  with  those 
used  with  steam. 


CHAPTER  7. 
THE  FIREBOX. 

The  proper  construction  of  the  firebox  intended  to  burn  oil  is  prob- 
ably the  most  important  matter  connected  with  the  installation  of 
liquid  fuel,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  that  part  of  the  construction 
which  has  received  least  attention  from  engineers.     The  reason  is  easy 


Fig.  oi).     Grate  Bar  Setting. 

to  find:  that  the  original  installations  of  fuel-oil  apparatus  were  in  fur- 
naces previously  burning  coal,  that  the  least  possible  alteration  was 
desired,  on  account  of  the  cost  of  changes,  and  that  the  degree  of  econ- 
omy realized  in  this  crude  manner  was  so  great  that  incentive  for 
improvement  was  lacking.  Still  it  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  coal- 
burning  furnace  is  particularly  ill  adapted  for  use  with  oil,  and  that  a 
radical  change  in  boiler-setting  methods  is  desirable. 

The  common  way  of  adapting  the  firebox  of  a  horizontal  boiler  to 
use  with  oil  (water-tube  boilers  are  mentioned  in  Chapter  11)  is  to 
cover  the  grate  bars  with  loose  fire-brick,  in  a  checker,  leaving  an 
opening  under  the  nose  of  the  burner,  and  to  insert  the  l)urner  through 
a  hole  in  the  boiler  front,  between  the  doors.  (See  Fig.  56.)  The  ash- 
pit openings  are  sometimes  closed  with  brick,  sometimes  left  open,  and 


82 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


the  bridge  wall  is  leveled  with  the  grates.  The  faults  of  this  system 
are  apparent  enough:  The  burner  points  directly  toward  the  back  plate, 
and  the  velocity  of  the  burner  jet  is  usually  such  that  combustion 
hardly  commences  further  forward  than  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
front.  Under  a  small  boiler,  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire  is  near  the 
rear  end,  and  if  the  fire  is  forced  the  back  plate  will  often  be 
raised  to  a  red  heat,  with  ruinous  effect  on  rear  tube  sheet  and  tube 
ends,  besides  forcing  considerable  amounts  of  combustible  gas  into  the 
stack  unburned.  If  it  is  attempted  to  break  the  course  of  the  flame 
by  leaving  the  bridge  wall  in  place,  the  flame  will  l)e  forced  directly 
against  the  fire  sheet,  causing  blistering  and  sagging,  even  with  good 
boiler  circulation.     Where  a   strong,  steady  flame  is  directed  against 


Fig.  57.    Target  Setting 


one  point  at  the  bottom  of  a  boiler,  it  is  quite  possible  for  the  steam  to 
drive  and  hold  back  the  water  at  that  point  for  any  length  of  time,  so 
that,  the  water  having  no  access  to  the  plate,  this  spot  would  be  rapidly 
burnt  out. 

This  method  of  firing  oil  is  wasteful  in  the  extreme,  as  well  as  very 
destructive,  where  the  boiler  is  forced,  though  for  very  light  work  it 
will  answer  well  enough.  A  burner  for  this  setting  should  be  of  the 
flat-flame  variety,  and  should  spread  the  flame  well  up  to  the  side  walls. 
Some  prefer  to  set  the  burner  level,  others  to  tip  it  slightly  toward  the 
brick  covering  the  grates. 

The  setting  generally  used  with  oil  stills  is  sometimes  applied  to 
boilers.  (See  Fig.  57.)  The  grates  are  removed,  the  bridge  wall  cut 
down  to  the  height  of  the  rear  bearing  bar,  the  back  filling  dressed  off 
to  an  even  slope,  and  a  fire-brick  target  run  from  ground  to  top  of 
bridge  wall,  inclined  from  30°  to  45°  to  the  vertical.  The  burner  is 
inserted  through  the  front,  and  set  so  that  the  flame  will  strike  in  a 
pile  of  broken  fire-brick  near  the  bottom  of  target.  The  ashpit  open- 
ings are  closed  with  brick,  only  a  small  draft  opening  being  left  in  each, 


THE    FIREBOX. 


83 


and  the  firebox  is  lined  with  one  or  two  courses  of  fire-brick  to  the 
bottom,  as  the  heat  is  highest  at  that  point.  This  setting  gives  excel- 
lent results,  particularly  with  hard  firing,  gives  the  use  of  the  entire 
lower  surface  of  the  boiler,  and  considerably  reduces  the  amount  of  air 
required  for  combustion,  as  the  burner  jet  is  practically  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  of  draft,  and  the  flame  rolls  over  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
furnace  before  going  over  the  bridge  wall.  With  this  setting  it  is 
necessary  to  regulate  the  draft  very  carefully,  as  an  excess  interferes 
with  the  proper  working  of  fire. 

A  rather  similar  method  (see  Fig.  58)  is  to  practically  remove  the 
bridge  wall,  and  to  bring  the  back  filling  to  a  nearly  even  slant  from 
front  to  a  rear  bridge  wall,  leaving  a  circulating  chamber  at  rear  end. 


PAUl-  W    PRUTZMAM 

Fig.  58.    Half  Target  Setting. 

The  burner  is  set  low,  and  the  flame  strikes  a  pile  of  broken  fire-brick 
placed  about  where  the  foot  of  bridge  wall  would  be.  This  arrangement 
is  less  severe  on  the  front  fire  sheet  than  the  target  setting  above,  but 
is  rather  less  efficient  as  regards  combustion.  With  either  of  these 
settings  any  form  of  burner  may  be  used,  either  round  or  flat  nozzle, 
though  a  round  nozzle  is  prolmbly  better.  If  a  round-nose  burner  is 
used,  and  the  flame  strikes  the  target  squarely,  carbon  deposits  are 
likely  to  form  while  the  firel)Ox  is  cool,  but  these  w^ill  burn  off  as  the 
heat  rises. 

^^'ith  any  form  of  target  setting  the  cast  boiler  front  is  entirely  unnec- 
essary, a  wall  of  red  brick  with  fire-brick  lining  being  as  good  or  better. 
In  any  setting  without  grate  bars  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  fire  up 
with  coal;  wood  may  be  used,  or  if  oil  can  be  gotten  through  the  burner 
in  any  way,  the  boiler  may  be  fired  up  with  cold  oil  by  flowing  a  small 
stream  onto  a  pile  of  waste,  burlap,  or  broken  brick,  in  the  center  of  the 
firebox.  This  method,  which  of  course  causes  some  smoke,  is  largely 
practiced  in  the  oil  fields. 

To  secure  perfect  combustion,  and  to  obtain  the  full  heating  value  of 


84 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


the  fire  gases  without  danger  of  burning  tubes  or  back  tube  sheet,  the  set- 
ting shown  in  Figs.  59  and  60  was  devised  and  used  by  Mr.  Frank  Fether, 
superintendent  of  the  Monte  Cristo  Oil  Company  of  Kern  River.  The 
tunnel  is  built  of  the  best  fire-brick,  and  covered  in  with  fire-tile,  of 
the  dimensions  shown,  which  are  made  to  order.     An  arch  made  of  fire- 


m 


m 


m 


\5pec\al  Filre  Til^ 


< e'c — y 


Closed  Tunnel 


' 


I       I       I       I 


JPAUL  W  PRUTZnAN 


LONSITUDINAL    SECTION 
Fig.  59.     Tunnel  Setting,  Back  Fired. 

brick  will  melt  down  in  the  intense  heat  generated  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  and  the  fire-tile  must  be  of  the  very  best  quality.  This  sj'-s- 
tem  secures  perfect  combustion  with  the  minimum  amount  of  air,  draft 

being  under  perfect  control,  and 
the  mixture  of  air  with  fire  gases 
very  thorough,  and  where  a 
boiler  is  run  twenty-four  hours 
per  day,  is  very  economical.  If 
a  boiler  is  to  be  run  day  shift 
only,  the  setting  is  not  very  suit- 
able, as  the  great  mass  of  fire- 
brick in  the  combustion  tunnel 
stores  up  a  large  quantity  of 
heat,  which  is  given  off  and 
practically  lost  during  the  night. 
The  heat  maintained  while  run- 
ning is  very  even,  but  on  account 
of  the  heat-storage  capacity  of 
the  brickwork,  does  not  respond  very  readily  to  varying  demands  for 
steam. 

To  obtain  the  same  results,  i.  e.,  perfect  combustion  at  the  front  end 
and  close  regulation  of  draft,  the  setting  shown  in  Fig.  61  has  been 
devised  by  Mr.  E.  N.  Moor,  superintendent  of  the  Capitol  refinery.  The 
iron  front  is  discarded  here  also,  and  the  coml)ustion  chamber  built  out 


Fig. 


CROSS  SECTION 
6U.     Tunnel  Setting,  Back  Fired. 


STORAGE   AND    HEATING. 


85 


in  front  of  tlie  l^oiler,  two  coursoH  of  fire-brick  and  two  of  red  brick,  the 
top  being  of  arcli  fire-tile.  The  advantage  of  this  method  of  setting  is 
that  the  high  heat  of  the  eonil)Ustion  chamber  secures  perfect  consump- 
tion of  the  oil  at  the  front  end,  shortens  the  flame,  and  does  away  with 
burning  the  rear  head,  while  at  the  same  time  the  heat-storage  capacity 
of  the  comlmstion  chamber  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  fire  suscep- 
tible of  close  regulation.  With  either  of  the  above  settings  a  burner  with 
round  nozzle,  or  other  tip  throwing  a  narrow  flame,  would  be  used,  in 


PARTIAL  SECTION 


FRONT  ELEVATION 


Fig.  61.     Tunnel  Setting,  Front  Fired. 

order  to  minimize  the  burning  of  side  walls  of  combustion  tunnel  or  box. 
With  this  provision,  any  form  of  burner  would  be  applicable. 

There  is  undoubtedly  great  room  for  improvement  in  the  matter  of 
setting  horizontal  boilers  for  oil  burning,  as  the  systems  most  used  at 
present  are  admitted  to  be  highly  unsatisfactory.  When  the  price  of 
fuel  oil  rises,  as  it  undoubtedly  will  in  time,  engineers  will  be  forced  to 
figure  more  closely  as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  oil  plant,  and  when  this  is 
done  a  radical  alteration  in  present  methods  may  be  looked  for. 


CHAPTER  8. 

STORAGE  AND  HEATING. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  at  which  oil  is  passed  into  the 
burner  will  de})end  largely  on  the  character  of  oil  used,  as  to  its  viscosity 
and  flash  point.  If  the  oil  is  to  be  heated  at  all  in  the  tank,  it  is 
desirable  to  heat  to  such  temperature  as  will  render  the  oil  fluid,  to 
permit  of  handling  with  reasonal)le  steam  consumption  at  the  pump; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  desirable,  for  several  reasons,  to  heat  the 
oil  beyond  its  flash  point,  and  as  a  rule  that  point  should  not  be 
approached  too  closely.     The  temperature  between  the  discharge  end 


86  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA, 

of  the  fuel  pump  and  the  burner  is,  however,  much  less  important  than 
that  between  the  suction  end  and  the  storage  tank. 

In  some  cities  there  are  insurance  or  fire  regulations  which  prevent 
the  heating  of  fuel-oil  tanks,  but  in  many  situations  where  oil  is  used 
for  fuel  there  are  no  requirements  except  such  as  the  consumer  sets  for 
his  own  safety.  The  steam  required  to  keep  a  fuel  supply  at  a  moderately 
high  temperature  being  considerably  less  than  that  required  to  pump 
the  same  oil  cold  (owing  to  the  heat  being,  in  the  first  case,  largely 
returned  to  the  firebox),  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil  is  pumped 
should  be  the  highest  consistent  with  safety  and  with  the  avoidance 
of  gas  in  the  suction  line  and  pump. 

The  average  oil  of  14°  gravity  reaches  practically  its  maximun) 
fluidity  at  150°  F.,  losing  very  little  in  viscosity  between  150°  and  250°: 
the  average  oil  of  this  gravity,  where  properly  prepared  for  fuel 
purposes,  flashes  at  from  250°  to  300°  F.,  and  could  l)e  kept  at  150°  F. 
with  perfect  safety. 

The  average  oil  of  16°  gravity  reaches  its  maximum  fluidity  at  about 
140°,  while  its  flash  point  will  range  from  240°  up;  such  an  oil  would 
properly  be  stored  and  pumped  at  about  140°. 

The  average  oil  of  18°  gravity  reaches  its  maximum  fluidity  at  about 
110°  F.,  while  the  flash  point  would  be  175°  or  above;  such  an  oil  should 
be  kept  at  about  110°. 

The  average  oil  of  20°  to  22°  gravity  is  usually  sufficiently  fluid  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Its  flash  point  will  range  from  130°  up  to  180°, 
and  it  may  be  heated,  if  necessary,  to  100°  with  safety,  but  not  higher 
unless  the  flash  point  of  the  particular  oil  were  known. 

Oils  lighter  than  22°  are  rarely  used  for  fuel  purposes,  being  of  more 
value  in  other  ways. 

Distillates  are  used  for  fuel  in  some  cases,  being  particularly  easy  to 
handle  in  some  situations  where  there  is  difficulty  with  heavy  crude; 
for  instance,  where  very  small  flames  are  required.  The  flash  point 
varies  from  below  normal  to  as  high  as  200°  F.,  but  the  average  fuel 
distillate,  of  25°  to  27°  gravity,  should  flash  at  from  130°  to  180^.  Where 
fuel  distillate  is  to  be  handled  in  any  quantity,  its  flash  point  should 
always  be  taken,  either  by  producer  or  consumer,  as  it  is  very  liable  to 
fluctuation.     It  is  rarely  necessary  to  heat  distillate  used  for  fuel. 

Gas. — It  has  been  contended  that  heating  a  heavy  oil  in  the  tank,  »>r 
l)etween  the  tank  and  the  pump,  increases  the  liability  to  gas  trapping 
in  the  suction,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  true  under  some  circumstances. 
But  it  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  giving  off  of  gas  from  a 
crude  oil  is  greatly  facilitated  by  reduction  of  pressure;  that  is,  if  the 
oil  is  rendered  fluid,  so  that  the  vacuum  in  the  suction  pipe  is  low,  the 
amount  of  gas  given  off  may  be  less  than  if  the  oil  is  cold,  making  the 
vacuum  in  the  suction  pipe  much  liigher.     The  question  as  to  which 


STORAGE    AND    HEATING.  O/ 

oondition  is  most  favorable  to  the  avoidance  of  gas  will  depend  for  its 
answer  on  the  nature  of  the  oil,  and  the  size  and  length  of  the  suction; 
tliere  will  necessarily  be  great  difference  in  different  cases. 

The  formation  of  gas  in  both  suction  and  discharge  ends,  but  particu- 
larly in  the  suction,  is  one  of  the  most  annoying  difhculties  encountered 
in  handling  crude  oil.  In  many  cases  it  can  not  be  avoided  by  any 
practical>le  arrangement,  but  much  trouble  can  often  be  obviated  if,  in 
installing  a  fuel-oil  plant,  attention  be  paid  to  the  kind  of  oil  to  be 
handled. 

If  the  oil  to  be  used  is  18°  or  lighter,  the  arrangement  of  pump 
and  connections  need  not  be  very  different  from  what  would  be  put  in 
for  water;  but  if  the  oil  is,  as  is  usually  the  case,  to  be  14*^  to  16°  in 
gravity,  great  care  must  be  taken  with  tank  and  suction  connections. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  the  storage  tank  should  be  set  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  oil  pump,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  on  its  level.  The 
ideal  arrangement  is  to  have  the  storage  tank  feed  the  pump  by  gravity, 
l)ut  in  cities,  or  where  the  danger  of  tire  is  considerable,  this  is  out  of 
the  (juestion.  But  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  lift  within 
reasonable  limits,  for  if  the  oil  is  to  be  pumped  cold,  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible ever  to  lift  more  than  six  or  seven  feet  in  cool  weather,  while  even 
with  a  four-foot  lift  it  will  be  difficult  at  times  to  make  the  pump  take 
up  heavy  oil.  For  this  reason,  and  as  the  gas  in  the  discharge  may  be 
l)led  off,  which  can  not  be  done  in  the  suction,  the  pump  should  be 
kept  as  low  as  possible,  preferably  on  the  boiler-room  floor,  even  at  the 
expense  of  some  inconvenience  in  cleaning,  etc.  The  suction  pipe 
should  be  large;  if  cold  oil  is  to  be  pumped  it  should  have  not  less 
than  twice  the  area  of  the  discharge,  and  where  the  trail  is  long  this 
suction  area  can  l^e  considerably  exceeded.  The  drawback  to  large 
suctions  is  in  first  cost  only;  once  installed  they  cost  no  more  than  a 
smaller  pipe,  and  the  difference  in  first  cost  Avill  soon  be  balanced  by 
saving  in  time  and  repairs.  Where  the  suction  has  two  or  more  bends 
they  should,  if  possible,  be  made  with  pipe  bent  to  a  long  radius,  or 
where  this  is  impracticable,  with  long  sweep  ells,  while  any  unneces- 
sary fittings  on  the  suction  should  l)e  carefully  avoided. 

Size  of  Pump. — As  to  size  of  pump  required  to  handle  any  quantity 
of  oil,  a  great  deal  will  depend  on  the  quality  of  the  oil.  A  pump  will 
handle  very  nearly  as  much  oil  of  18°  or  lighter  as  of  water,  whether 
the  oil  is  hot  or  cold,  but  where  14°  oil  is  to  be  pumped  cold  the  water 
end  should  have  at  least  five  times  the  cubic  capacity  required  for  an 
equal  delivery  of  water.  In  pumping  cold  heavy  oil  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  piston  speed  much  below  what  would  be  good  practice  in 
pumping  water,  while  even  with  light  or  hot  oil  it  is  not  desirable  to 
speed  a  pump  very  high.  The  valves  in  the  water  end,  where  seated 
by  springs,  should  be  set  at  the  lowest  tension  consistent  with  prompt 


88  PETROL?:i'M    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

seating.  A  small  amount  of  slip  through  the  valves  because  of  slow 
seating  is  better  than  continual  trouble  with  gas  binding  in  the 
cylinders.  Owing  to  the  high  compressibility  of  oil  gases,  they  are 
slow  to  lift  the  valves  when  the  latter  are  heavily  weighted,  and  it  is 
no  uncommon  sight  to  see  an  oil  pump  alternately  compressing  and 
distending  the  gases  in  both  ends  of  the  cylinder,  without  the  valves 
lifting  from  their  seats. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  steam  end,  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  rules 
from  the  data  so  far  worked  out.  It  is  probable  that  with  low  pressures 
(twenty  to  thirty  pounds)  an  oil  of  14°  gravity  offers  from  three  to  four 
times  the  resistance  in  the  pump  which  would  be  given  by  water,  but 
only  where  the  oil  is  being  circulated  very  slowly,  as  is  visually  the 
case  in  a  fuel-supply  system.  The  resistance  to  flow  through  pipes 
rises  very  rapidly  as  the  speed  is  increased,  much  more  rapidly  than 
with  water  or  other  light  liquids.  Where  the  oil  goes  from  the  discharge 
immediately  to  the  heater,  and  is  carried  in  the  discharge  system  at 
150°  or  above,  the  resistance  offered  to  its  flow  through  the  pipes  is  not 
much  greater  than  that  of  water. 

Pressure. — The  pressure  at  which  the  oil  is  carried  to  the  burners  is 
a  matter  of  opinion.  It  is  probable  that  moderately  high  pressures 
(forty  to  sixty  pounds)  assist  in  atomizing,  and  lower  the  steam  con- 
sumption at  the  burner  more  than  enough  to  make  up  for  the  extra 
steam  consumed  at  the  pump.  There  is  very  little  doul)t  that  more  oil 
can  be  burned  under  a  boiler  with  high  oil  pressure  than  with  low,  and 
where  boilers  are  being  forced  to  their  maximum  capacity  this  is  a 
material  advantage.  But  on  small  plants,  where  boiler  capacity  is 
usually  sufficient,  this  is  of  less  importance  than  the  difficulty  of  mak- 
ing tight  joints  with  hot  oil  under  high  pressure.  High  pressures, 
particularlj^  if  carried  on  the  oil  orifice  of  the  burner  rather  than  on 
the  needle  valve,  serve  to  prevent  choking  up. 

Gravity  Feed. — For  small  plants,  where  insurance  regulations  do 
not  figure,  gravity  feed  has  several  advantages.  The  great  drawback 
to  this  system — the  danger  in  case  of  fire — does  not  amount  to  much  if 
the  tank  is  set  at  some  distance  from  the  buildings,  and  on  a  foundation 
which  can  not  burn  out.  As  with  gravity  feed  it  is  rarely  possible  to 
get  more  than  eight  or  ten  pounds  pressure  at  the  burner,  there  should 
be  provision  for  keeping  the  oil  very  hot,  the  burner  should  be  of  some 
form  Avhich  will  work  to  satisfaction  at  five  pounds  oil  pressure,  and 
traps  or  siphons  in  the  feed  pipe  must  be  aA'oided.  Gravity  feed  is  not 
at  all  economical  of  steanij  as  the  saving  in  pumping  is  more  than 
compensated  by  the  extra  steam  required  to  inject  low-pressure  oil,  but 
it  has  the  great  advantage  that  it  is  independent  of  steam  or  solid  fuel 
for   starting  (a  layer  of  brickbats  or  other  non-combustible  material. 


STORAGE    AND    HEATING.  89 

saturated  with  oil,  providing  a  means  of  starting  up  a  small  boiler) 
and  that  gravity  is  much  more  dependable  than  a  small  feed  pump. 

Piping^. — Two  recognized  methods  for  bringing  oil  to  the  burners  are 
used:  the  circulating  system  and  the  "dead  end"  system.  In  the  first, 
more  oil  is  pumped  into  the  feed  pipes  than  the  burners  consume,  the 
excess  being  taken  from  a  point  near  the  burners,  through  a  pressure 
regulator  or  standpipe,  back  to  the  suction  of  the  pump.  In  the  second, 
there  is  no  outlet  for  the  oil,  even  pressure  being  maintained  by  pro- 
portioning the  steam  end  of  pump  to  steam  and  oil  pressures;  it  is 
apparent  that  this  would  work  only  where  boiler  pressure  remained 
constant,  but  governors  are  also  in  use  which  regulate^  the  steam  supply 
to  pump,  according  to  pressure  on  oil  system.  The  first  method  has 
the  advantages:  first,  that  even  pressure  is  maintained  independent  of 
fluctuations  in  steam  pressure  or  in  temperature  of  oil;  and  second, 
that  the  constant  flow  of  oil  through  the  pipes  |;ends  to  prevent  their 
being  stopped  up  by  sediment  deposited  from  hot  oil.  A  third  point, 
sometimes  of  much  importance,  is  that  the  quantity  of  oil  passing 
through  the  heater,  being  independent  of  quantity  used,  is  much  more 
constant  than  where  it  varies  with  the  adjustment  of  burners,  and  thus 
the  temperature  of  oil  issuing  from  heater  is  much  more  likely  to  be 
constant.  This  is  a  material  advantage,  for  where  there  is  much  fluctua- 
tion in  the  temperature  of  the  oil  brought  to  burners,  the  quantity  fed 
through  a  valve  set  at  a  certain  point  will  also  vary  greatly,  and  thus 
disturb  the  relative  adjustment  of  steam  and  oil,  and  require  more 
attention  from  the  fireman.  Of  course,  in  circulating  the  oil  there  is 
some  loss  of  power,  but  the  quantity  of  steam  required  by  the  oil  pump 
is  a  very  small  matter,  at  most,  compared  with  the  steam  consumed  in 
the  burners. 

There  is  one  material  disadvantage  attached  to  this  system;  that  the 
gas,  more  or  less  of  which  is  always  carried  into  the  pipes  from  heater, 
is  turned  back  into  the  pump  suction.  If  conditions  are  such  that  the 
returned  oil  can  be  carried  to  the  storage  tank,  this  does  not  figure,  but 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  where  the  quantity  of  oil  circu- 
lated is  but  little  more  than  the  burners  use,  the  constant  return  of 
hot  oil  to  the  tank  will,  if  the  latter  be  small,  raise  its  temperature 
considerably  in  the  course  of  a  day's  run.  In  some  cases,  where  it  is 
desired  to  carry  the  storage  tank  hot,  this  method  is  used  for  heating 
the  stored  oil,  instead  of  putting  coils  in  the  tank  itself. 

Heaters. — The  heater  should  of  course  be  at  the  discharge  end  of  the 
pump,  and  is  best  arranged  so  that  oil  and  steam  flow  in  opposite 
directions.  It  is  desirable  that  the  oil  should  move  from  bottom  to 
top,  and  there  should  be  considerable  space  below  the  inlet  to  allow 
dirt  to  settle  on  the  bottom,  w^here  a  plug  is  provided  for  cleaning  from 


90 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


time  to  time.  Space  should  also  be  left  above  the  tubes  for  gas,  and  a 
bleeder  or  other  device  placed  on  the  crown  so  that  the  gas  may  be 
removed,  while  oil  is  taken  from  the  side,  two  or  three  inches  from  the 
top.  This  arrangement  separates  gas  from  the  oil,  and  keeps  it  out  of 
the  pipe  system,  thus  helping  to  avoid  the  blowing  out  of  burners  by 
gas  bubbles.  A  simple  petcock  for  bleeding  off  the  gas  requires  a  good 
deal  of  attention,  and  where  the  quantity  of  oil  handled  is  large,  it  may 

be  economy  to  use  an  automatic 
l>leeder,  similar  in  construction  to 
the  air  bleeders  used  on  water  pipe- 
lines. 

This  contrivance  is  roughly 
sketched  in  Fig.  16,  where  it  is 
shown  in  place  in  the  top  of  a 
column  heater,  though  it  could  be 
applied  as  well  to  any  other  form  of 
heater  having  a  gas  chamber  on  top. 
The  inner  and  outer  shells  of  heater 
are  held  in  position  by  the  1"  pipe, 
inside  of  which  is  passed  a  piece  of 
f "  XX  pipe,  bored  out  to  V',  held 
below  by  the  valve  seat  D,  above  by 
the  faced  lock  nut  E,  with  rubber 
gasket,  bearing  on  flange  of  outer 
shell.  The  float  A  moves  the  stem 
B,  carrying  the  valve  C.  The  stem 
makes  a  neat  sliding  fit  in  the  hole 
through  seat  D,  and  in  the  |"  pipe; 
the  valve  is  ground  into  seat  after 
setting  up  entire  apparatus.  The 
stem  is  supported  above  by  a  nut  F, 
which  carries  the  weights,  and  is 
channeled  lightly  on  four  sides,  the  channels  being  carried  below  bottom 
of  thread  where  stem  passes  through  nut.  The  length  of  stem  is  so 
adjusted  that  the  float  will  be  about  half  submerged  when  the  oil  in  inner 
chamber  is  at  the  desired  height  above  outlet.  By  placing  ordinary 
iron  scale  weights  over  top  of  stem,  the  buoyancy  of  float  and  gas  pres- 
sure on  stem  are  exactly  balanced.  As  gas  accumulates  in  top  of  heater 
the  oil  will  be  forced  down,  the  float  will  fall,  carrying  valve  away 
from  seat,  gas  will  escape  through  the  grooves  in  stem,  and  the  oil 
rising  to  balance  pressure  will  raise  the  float,  closing  valve.  The  entire 
play  of  the  stem  need  not  exceed  i",  as  the  rise  and  fall  of  stem  when 
in  use  are  almost  imperceptible. 

This  contrivance  is  sensitive  and  reliable,  as  there  are  no  packed  joints 


Automatic  Gas  Relief  Valve. 


STORAGE    AND    HEATING, 


91 


to  gum,  and  sticking  of  stem  or  valve  may  be  relieved  by  running  light 
mineral  oil  into  grooves,  and  revolving  stem.  The  cost  of  the  appa- 
ratus is  considerable,  and  its  use  is  hardly  justified  unless  considerable 
quantities  of  oil  are 
being  handled. 

Probably  the  best 
arrangement  for  a 
heater,  though  a 
rather  expensive  one, 
is  a  battery  of  small 
t  ubes,  connecting 
chambers  above  and 
below,  and  jacketed 
for  steam  outside. 
(See  Fig.  17.)  The 
tubes  should  have  a 
combined  area  some- 
what larger  than  that 
of  the  outlet  pipe; 
the  length  is  figured 
from  the  heating  sur- 
face required,  and  this 
from  the  tempera- 
tures and  the  amount 
of  oil  passed.  In  fig- 
uring on  the  basis  of 
heating  an  equal 
amount  of  water,  al- 
loAvance  must  be  made 
for  the  fact  that  with 
oil,  while  the  specific 
heat  (that  is,  the  heat 
required  to  raise  a 
given  amount  of  oil 
to  a  given  tempera- 
ture) is  less  than  with 
water,  the  speed  of 
absorption  and  trans- 
ference of  heat  through  oil  is  very  low.  This  makes  a  larger  heating 
surface  necessary  than  would  be  required  for  water  under  the  same 
conditions,  but  there  are  not,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  any  figures 
to  be  had  which  will  determine  how  large  this  allowance  should  be. 
A  heater  of  ample  size  is  an  excellent  investment. 


PBUU   W-  PPUTZMfl/M  •  NOV-  1103 


Fig.  17.     Oil  Heater,  Tubular  Pattern. 


92 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


The  chamber  heater  (see  Fig.  18)  is  a  cheap  device,  which  takes  up 
much  room  in  proportion  to  its  capacity,  but  otherwise  gives  good 
results.  If  made  of  6"  pipe  inside  12"  casing,  a  length  of  five  feet  over 
all  will  heat  the  oil  required  for  two  or  three  burners,  using  exhaust 
steam.  The  details  of  construction  shown  in  the  figure  would  not,  of 
course,  answer  for  steam  under  any  pressure.  This  heater  is  difficult 
to  clean,  the  inner  chamber  being  accessible  only  by  breaking  down 
the  whole  apparatus,  but  may  be  gotten  in  shape,  if  very  dirty,  by 
blowing  steam  from  top  to  bottom,  and  ordinarily  may  be  kept  fairly 
clean  by  occasionally  drawing  down  while  hot. 

Where  but  a  single  burner  is  to  be  supplied,  a  i"  steam  pipe  may  be 
run  inside  either  suction  or  discharge  line,  and  will  heat  the  oil  very 
thoroughly  with  a  small  amount  of  waste  steam.  If  placed  in  the 
suction,  the  steam  pipe  must  follow  the  oil  line  into  the  tank  (discharg- 


Steam 


nUcL, 


-Oil 


nnn 


Fig.  18.     Oil  Heater,  Chamber  Type. 

ing  outside),  as  otherwise  the  vacuum  raised  by  the  plug  of  cold  oil  in 
the  end  of  the  pipe,  combined  with  the  heating  of  the  oil,  would  fill 
the  suction  with  gas. 

A  coil  of  small  pipe,  laid  inside  a  short  length  of  4"  to  6"  pipe,  the 
latter  being  capped,  and  connected  with  pump  discharge  (steam  inside, 
oil  outside  of  coil),  makes  a  cheap  and  efficient  heater,  but  the  back 
pressure  of  the  coil  will  usually  make  it  undesirable  to  use  exhaust  steam. 
Both  of  the  above  systems  have  the  drawback  that  they  do  not  take 
care  of  the  inevitable  gas,  but  pass  it  to  the  burner.  Suitable  heating 
arrangements  of  simple  form,  adapted  to  the  particular  case,  will 
readily  suggest  themselves  to  the  engineer. 

Some  users  of  oil  prefer  to  take  it  to  the  burner  cold,  but  the  diffi- 
culty of  pumping,  and  even  more,  of  regulating  cold  heavy  oil,  would 
seem  to  make  it  desirable  to  heat  the  oil  wherever  possible.  A  heater 
of  ample  capacity  has  a  strong  cleansing  effect  on  the  oil,  depositing 


STORAGE    AND    HEATING. 


93 


sand  and  water,  and  causing  tlie  t^ludge  to  be  taken  up  by  the  oil,  and 
while  this  may  be  of  little  inii)ortaiU'e  so  long  as  the  oil  oonies  to  the 
tank  clean,  it  is  very  useful  if  the  oil  is  bad,  as  will  oecasionally  hai){)en. 

Pressure  Regulation. — The  pressure  in  a  circulating  system  is  regu- 
lated either  by  a  pressure  relief  valve  such  as  is  used  for  water,  or  by  a 
standpipe  with  overflow.  For  the  former  use,  a  standard  water  relief 
valve,  operated  by  a  spring,  and  adjustable  with  wheel,  is  on  the 
market.  If  a  relief  valve  is  needed  where  the  regular  article  is  not 
obtainable,  a  very  satisfactory  regulator  may  be  made  from  an  old  globe 
valve,  by  removing  the  threads  from  stem,  and  putting  in  place  of  the 
wheel  a  broad  iron  disc,  to  be  loaded  with  the  proper  weight.  As  it  is 
necessary  in  doing  this  to  exactly  center  the  weight,  to  prevent  the  stem 
binding  in  the  packing,  it  is  sometimes  thought  preferable  to  remove 
the  wheel  and  fit  a  lever  resting  on  top  of  stem  (as  in  the  lever  safety 
valve)  with  ball  weight.  These  relief  valves  work  very  well  when  made 
with  care,  and  an  old  valve  answers  as  well  or  better  than  a  new  one; 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  remark  that  the  pressure  comes  below,  not 
above,  the  disc. 

In  regulating  pressure  by  standpipe  and  overflow,  Avhich  is  more 
reliable  than  any  relief  valve  could  be,  it  is  merely  necessary  to  figure 
the  height  required  above  burner.  The  following  brief  table  gives  the 
height  (in  inches  and  tenths)  of  a  column  of  oil  of  known  gravity,  at 
known  temperature,  required  for  a  gauge  pressure  of  one  pound  : 

TABLE   10. 


Temperature  of  Column,  in  Degrees  Fahrenheit. 

60° 

70° 

80° 

90° 

100° 

110° 

120° 

f 

I      10° 

27.7 

27.8 

27.9 

28.0 

28.2 

28.3 

28.4 

1   .a 

•■V 

11° 

27.9 

28.0 

28.1 

28.2 

28.4 

28.5 

28.6 

pq 

12° 
13° 

28.1 
28.3 

28.2 
28.4 

28.3 

28.5 

28.4 
28.6 

28.6 
28.8 

28.7 
28.9 

28.8 
2i).0 

5  C 

3  2. 

it 

14° 

28.5 

28.6 

28.7 

28.8 

29.0 

29.1 

29.2 

(i  ~ 

a 

15° 

28.7 

28.8 

28.9 

29.0 

29.2 

29.3 

29.4 

o 

16° 

17° 

1     28.9 
29.1 

29.0 
29.2 

29.1 
29.3 

29.2 
29.4 

29.4 
29.6 

29.5 
29.7 

29.6 
29.8 

5  - 

> 

18° 

29.3 

29.4 

29.5 

29.6 

29.8 

29.9 

30.0 

??i' 

g 

19° 

29.5 

29.6 

29.7 

29.9 

30.0 

30.1 

30.2 

l-J 

i 

20° 

29.7 

29.8 

29.9 

30.1 

30.2 

.30.3 

30.4    ' 

i 

^ 

94 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Connections. — Tlie  accompanying  sketches  (Figs.  30  and  31)  show 
connections  and  pipe  arrangements  between  the  tank  and  boiler  front. 
Tlie  order  of  these  connections  is  apparent  enough  without  any  descrip- 
tion. The  pi})es  are  all  small,  unless  a  large  number  of  burners  is 
to  be  su})plied,  as  a  single  burner  is  amply  taken  care  of  by  ^'  oil 
])ipe  and  |"  steam  pipe.  It  is  always  well  to  have  a  cock  in  the  oil 
])ipe  back  of  the  main  valve  controlling  the  burner  supply,  and  to  have 
a  stop  in  a  handy  situation  on  the  main  oil  feed,  so  tliat  all  the  burners 
may  be  shut  down  at  once  in  case  of  accident. 


CQVfPMENT        rott 


t — ^^  _  _ 
Fig.  30.    Oil  Burners,  Front  End  Connections. 


The  valve  controlling  burner  oil  supply  must  be  very  sensitive,  and  is 
always  likely  to  choke.  Needle  valves  are  often  used,  though  stopcocks 
are  sometimes  preferred.  If  the  latter  are  used,  they  should  be  of  the 
lever-handle  variety,  and  work  rather  stiff.  They  may  be  made  much 
more  sensitive  by  stopping  up  the  opening  in  the  plug,  and  drilling 
through  the  latter,  at  right  angles  to  the  opening,  a  hole  ^"  in  diameter. 
Or  with  less  trouble,  one  face  of  the  opening  in  plug  may  be  widened 
with  a  file,  say  /^"  above  its  original  size,  while  at  one  side  of  the  other 
face  a  V-shaped  cut  is  made  with  a  small  file.     Either  of  these  arrange- 


STORAGE    AND    HEATING. 


95 


iiients  offei>  a  very  .small  o])ening  to  the  first  passage  of  oil.   while  with 
the  second  the  valve  may  he  thrown  wide  o})en  if  desired. 

Impurities  in  Oil. — Oils  lighter  than  18'^"  in  gravity  are  generally 
almost  free  from  water  and  sediment,  hut  heavier  oils  sometimes  contain 
notal)le  quantities  of  both,  though  a  great  change  for  the  better  in  that 
respect  has  been  made  of  late.  Both  impurities  are  very  objectionable. 
Water  not  only  displaces  its  own  bulk  of  oil,  but  also  lowers  the  total 
evaporation  by  its  own  weight  or  more;  the  principal  objection,  however, 
is  due  to  its  tendency  to  emulsify  with  the  oil,  forming  a  froth  which  is 


OIL  TO  BURNERS 


=«a 


:^^= 


J    SSTEAM  TO  BURNER* 


Fig.  SI.     Oil  BiiriuT  Connections. 
(Reiinxlnccri  fi-diii  "The  Engineer."  Feb.  l.'i.  1902.) 


difficult  to  i)ump,  and  which  is  likely  to  form  a  layer  in  the  tank, 
)»ractically  non-combustible  when  pumped  to  the  burner.  This  is 
])articularly  true  in  circulating  systems  where  the  excess  oil  is  returned 
to  the  service  tank,  as  any  water  is  here  in  a  short  time  thoroughly 
churned  up  with  the  oil.  The  writer  once  saw  thirty  barrels  of  heavy 
oil  so  completely  emulsified  with  water  as  to  form  a  pasty  mass,  which 
could  not  be  forced  through  the  needle  valve,  wide  open,  for  more  than 
a  minute  at  a  time,  with  thirty  pounds  pressure.  The  paste  was  so 
thick  as  to  suggest  a  large  amount  of  sand,  yet  a  test  showed  nothing 
to  be  present  but  oil  and  water.  The  latter  was  put  into  the  tank 
7— Bi-L.  32 


96  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

accidentally,  was  al)out  half  the  bulk  of  the  oil,  and  had  l)een  thoroughly- 
agitated  with  tiie  oil  l)efore  its  presence  became  known.  Such  a  case  as 
this  is  extreme,  yet  in  many  cases  difficulty  in  making  burners  feed 
properly  may  be  traced  to  the  presence  in  oil  of  a  small  percentage  of 
water  in  a  finely  divided  state. 

Sand  or  other  dirt  is  even  worse,  as  when  once  packed  it  can  not 
be  forced  through  burners  or  valves  by  any  amount  of  pressure,  and 
as  it  rapidly  settles  to  a  hard  mass  when  allowed  to  stand.  Tanks  in 
which  oil  is  to  be  heated  should  always  be  provided  with  means  for 
cleaning,  sags  in  pipes  should  l)e  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  pro- 
vision should  l)e  made  for  ])lowing  steam  back  from  the  burners  to  the 
pump,  and  from  pump  to  supply  tank.  As  this  means  of  cleaning 
throws  more  or  less  water  into  the  oil,  it  should  be  used  only  when 
tank  is  empty,  or  in  case  of  emergency,  l)ut  is  highly  efficacious.  Where 
tanks  are  set  underground  it  is  considered  desirable  to  })ut  in  suction 
from  top  rather  than  through  bottom,  and  to  have  it  clear  bottom  of 
tank  by  at  least  an  inch — two  or  three  inches  are  better.  Where  draw- 
ing oil  from  tanks  above  the  surface,  it  is  well  to  set  the  outlet  three  or 
four  inches  up  the  side;  in  no  case  should  the  outlet  be  brought  out 
from  the  bottom  and  then  up,  as  is  occasionally  done,  as  the  bend  thus 
formed  is  absolutely  certain  to  fill  with  sand  in  a  short  time,  and  is 
very  difficult  to  clear. 

Estimation  of  Impurity. — When  crude  oil  is  bought  on  contract,  a 
clause  is  generally  inserted  providing  for  a  maximum  amount  of  water 
and  sediment.  This  percentage  may  readily  be  ascertained  by  the 
buyer,  if  desired,  in  the  following  manner:  A  stoppered  glass  cylinder 
of  100  cubic  centimeters  capacity  (which  may  be  had  from  dealers  in 
chemical  apparatus  for  less  than  a  dollar)  is  filled  to  the  50  c.c.  mark 
with  the  oil  to  be  tested,  being  careful  not  to  get  more  oil  on  the  sides 
of  cylinder  than  is  necessary,  and  to  take  a  well-mixed  average  sample 
of  the  oil.  The  cylinder  is  then  filled  to  the  75  c.c.  mark  with  com- 
mercial benzole  (not  benzine,  which  is  entirely  different  and  will  not 
answer;  benzole  may  be  had  from  wholesale  druggists  at  about  fifty 
cents  per  quart)  and  well  shaken,  until  the  oil  is  dissolved  off  sides  and 
])ottom;  this  can  be  readily  seen  by  the  darker  color  of  the  undissolved 
oil.  The  stopper  is  then  removed,  and  the  cylinder  filled  to  the  100  c.c. 
mark  with  ordinary  gasoline,  stoppered,  well  shaken,  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  twenty-four  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  water  and 
dirt,  if  any  be  present,  will  have  settled  in  a  clean  layer  on  the  bottom, 
and  can  be  read  off,  each  1  c.c.  of  this  bottom  layer  representing  2%  of 
foreign  matter  in  the  oil.  The  cylinder  should  not  be  handled  until 
after  the  reading  is  made,  for  if  disturbed  the  bottom  layer  may  be 
again  mixed  with  the  oil  above.  This  method  is  accurate  to  one  half 
of  one  per  cent,  after  reasonable  practice,  and  requires  but  a  few 
minutes,  aside  from  the  time  allowed  for  settlement. 


REGULATION    OF    OIL    FIRES.  97 

Gasoline  Test. — The  figures  obtained  in  this  manner  do  not  corre- 
spond with  those  given  by  the  ordinary  gasoline  test,  the  i)ereentage 
given  !)y  the  hitter  being  higher.  But  there  is  no  question  that  the 
usual  gasoline  cut  is,  when  applied  to  California  oils,  inaccurate,  and 
unfair  to  the  producer,  for  the  following  reason:  Gasoline  of  74°  gravity, 
when  mixed  with  heavy  crude  oil,  separates  not  only  sand  and  water, 
l>ut  also  a  Haky  black  or  ])rown  su])stance  commonly  called  sludge.  The 
sludge  i)recipitated  in  this  manner  is  really  asphaltene,  a  solid  sub- 
stance, which  normally  remains  dissolved  in  oil,  but  which  is  separated 
l)y  the  gasoline  in  a  spongy  form,  at  least  eighty  per  cent  of  the  bulk 
of  the  sludge  as  it  settled  out  in  the  gasoline  cut  consisting  of  gasoline. 
Asphaltene  is  an  integral  part  of  the  oil,  will  not  separate  under  nor- 
mal conditions,  and  has  practically  the  same  value  for  fuel  as  any  other 
part  of  the  oil.  There  seems  no  reason  why  this  substance  should  be 
arbitrarily  separated  and  classed  as  an  impurity,  nor  why  its  bulk 
should  be  read  under  conditions  which  give  a  much  greater  percentage 
than  the  true  one.  Further,  the  percentage  of  impurity  determined  in 
this  manner,  on  any  one  sample,  will  vary  widely  with  slight  differ- 
ences in  the  gravity  of  gasoline  used,  and  with  the  temperature  at  which 
the  test  is  made.  The  gasoline  test  as  commonly  used  in  the  oil  fields 
gives  a  reading  from  two  to  six  times  as  great  as  the  true  percentage  of 
foreign  matter. 

The  test  with  Ijenzole,  above  outlined,  is  by  no  means  a  perfect  one, 
as  the  reading  of  small  quantities  in  a  comparatively  wide  graduate 
can  never  be  very  accurate,  and  as  the  water  sticking  to  the  sides  of 
graduate  is  not  included  in  the  reading.  It  is,  however,  much  more 
relial)lc  and  nearer  the  truth  than  the  common  gasoline  cut,  and  is 
prol)ably  as  accurate  as  any  process  which  can  be  conducted  by 
unskilled  persons  without  laboratory  facilities. 


CHAPTER  9. 

REGULATION  OF  OIL  FIRES. 

The  proper  regulation  of  an  oil  fire  is  learned  by  experience,  and  by 
experience  only.  But  the  regulation  of  draft  is  a  matter  of  much 
importance,  and  a  few  words  on  this  subject  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

Quantity  of  Air. — The  quantity  of  air  required  for  the  complete 
combustion  of  a  pound  of  oil  does  not  vary  much  with  various  grades 
of  oil  (ranging  from  170  to  175  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  dry  oil),  but 
the  amount  actually  used  in  different  cases  does  vary  enormously.  If 
the  excess  of  air  can  be  restricted  to  three  fourths  of  the  amount 
required  (making  total  consumption  a])proximate  .SOO  feet  per  j)ound), 


98  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

the  apparatus  and  regulation  are  probably  as  perfect  as  there  is  any 
reason  to  expect,  under  the  best  conditions.  But  where  the  excess 
amounts  to  two  or  three  times  the  amount  used,  the  waste  is  very  great, 
and  should  be  corrected. 

An  oil-burning  furnace  always  works  under  forced  draft,  the  jet  of 
steam  from  the  burner  being  a  powerful  injector.  For  this  reason  the 
draft  openings  should  always  be  considerably  smaller  than  would  be 
used  with  solid  fuel.  Air  should  be  taken  into  the  firebox,  in  most 
cases,  both  at  ground  level  and  at  a  higher  point,  at  or  near  level  of 
burner.  With  draft  openings  of  a  fixed  size,  the  amount  of  air  passing 
into  the  firebox  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  steam  issuing  from 
burner,  and  to  this  extent  the  draft  is  self-regulating,  but  by  careful 
manipulation  of  draft  openings  the  fireman  can  almost  always  improve 
the  efficiency  of  the  firebox.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  direct  way  of 
telling  when  the  point  of  greatest  efficiency  has  been  reached,  without 
analysis  of  chimney  gases;  but  by  balancing  steam  against  air  until 
the  smallest  draft  opening  is  found  which  will  keep  the  fire  clear,  a  fair 
degree  of  economy  can  always  be  had. 

An  over-supply  of  air  to  an  oil  fire  not  only  wastes  fuel,  but  also 
causes  a  tendency  to  puffing,  particularly  Avith  low  fires.  This  may 
often,  though  not  always,  be  better  corrected  by  reducing  the  draft 
than  by  turning  down  the  steam  supply  to  burner.  When  a  burner 
puffs  persistently  at  a  point  where  it  should  carry  a  clean  fire,  it  is 
good  proof  that  the  burner  does  not  atomize  properly.  Some  burners, 
particularly  home-made  ones,  have  a  space  just  inside  the  nozzle  where 
oil  might  collect  in  a  little  pool.  When  running  hard  the  velocity  of 
steam  will  carry  out  this  oil  as  it  runs  down,  but  when  running  with  a 
low  fire  the  oil  will  collect,  finally  be  bloAvn  out  in  a  spurt,  then  collect 
again,  causing  strong  puffing  of  the  fire.  This  can  be  done  away  with 
only  by  altering  the  shape  of  the  burner.  When  burners  are  expected 
to  run  regularly  on  a  small  steam  supply,  they  should  be  so  designed 
that  oil  entering  them  will  run  out  clean  and  freely  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  steam. 

Explosions. — Any  trap  of  this  sort  will  occasionally  cause  an  explo- 
sion in  the  firebox,  which  may  be  dangerous  under  some  conditions. 
Explosions  are  more  often  caused  by  a  temporary  stoppage  of  the  oil 
supply  through  grit,  gas,  or  a  globule  of  water;  the  oil  being  suddenly 
turned  again  into  the  hot  furnace,  often  in  quantity,  will  be  gasified 
and  ignited  by  the  hot  brickwork.  These  explosions  can  never  be 
entirely  prevented,  but  may  be  reduced  in  number  by  care  in  keeping 
pipes  clean,  by  bleeding  off  gas,  by  preventing  gas  traps  and  pockets, 
and  by  running  with  fairly  high  pressure  on  the  oil  feed.  Serious 
accidents  from  this  cause  are  very  rare. 


REGULATION    OF    OIL    FIRES.  99 

Carbon  Deposits  air  (luc  to  imperfect  atomization,  or  to  improper 
settinjj;  of  burners  in  the  furnace.  A  burner  should  be  chosen  to  throw 
a  tlame  of  length  suitable  to  the  length  of  the  furnace;  a  long  flame  in 
a  long  and  narrow  furnace,  a  short  flame  in  a  short  furnace.  The  most 
|)rolific  source  of  carbon  deposits  is  improper  working  of  the  burner, 
and  this  can  be  corrected  only  by  increasing  the  steam  supply,  restrict- 
ing the  area  of  nozzle,  or  more  often  by  entire  change  in  form  of  burner. 
It  is  poor  economy  to  shut  off  incipient  carbon  formations  by  increasing 
the  draft — the  remedy  is  worse  than  the  disease.  Burners  set  into  a 
furnace  at  an  angle  are  sometimes  set  too  close  to  the  opposite  wall, 
and  in  this  case  they  can  be  turned,  or  better,  the  nozzle  so  adjusted  as 
to  throw  a  shorter  Hame.  In  adjusting  a  burner  into  the  firebox,  it 
should  be  remembered  that,  to  restrict  excess  of  draft,  it  is  best  to  have 
the  jet  from  burner  meet  the  main  current  of  entering  air  at  or  near  a 
right  angle.  This  greatly  promotes  mixing  of  air  and  oil  vapor,  but 
generally  involves  pointing  the  burner  at  a  wall  or  target. 

An  over-supply  of  steam,  or  the  use  of  very  wet  steam,  will  some- 
times partially  extinguish  an  oil  fire,  causing  it  to  give  off  a  dense 
white  smoke,  of  a  foul  and  characteristic  odor.  This  smoke  consists 
principally  of  unconsumed  petroleum  gases,  and  is  usually  seen  only 
tor  a  moment  at  a  time.  Where  it  is  produced  often,  or  for  any  length 
of  time,  it  indicates  an  unusual  degree  of  either  inattention  or  igno- 
rance on  the  part  of  the  fireman,  or  else  a  radical  defect  in  the  instal- 
lation. Too  much  water  in  the  steam  is  most  likely  to  be  the  trouble, 
and  this  can  be  corrected  either  by  slightly  superheating,  or  by  the  use 
of  proper  bleeders.  It  is  rarely  possible  to  dry  the  steam  enough  to 
give  really  satisfactory  results  with  small  burners,  unless  some  super- 
heating device  is  used. 

Superheating"  is  often  practiced  in  large  as  well  as  small  plants,  and 
in  many  ways  is  very  desirable.  It  greatly  assists  in  heating  and 
therefore  in  atomizing  the  oil,  reduces  amount  of  steam  used  by  burner, 
and  prevents  accidents  due  to  fire  being  extinguished  by  a  gush  of 
water.  Special  superheaters  are  sometimes  used  in  large  plants,  but  in 
small  installations  a  coil  of  pipe  in  the  firebox  answers  every  purpose. 
The  pipe  should  be  extra  or  double-extra  strong,  the  fittings  inside 
tirebox  should  be  cast,  and  the  pipe  should  have  at  least  twice  the 
diameter  of  the  steam  supply  to  burner  (inside).  Valve  should  be 
placed  between  superheater  and  boiler,  not  between  superheater  and 
burner,  and  it  is  well  to  place  a  trap  in  the  steam  pipe  at  the  point 
where  it  enters  the  coil,  with  bleeder  at  the  bottom.  If  so  set  that  the 
flame  does  not  strike  coil  directly,  it  will  last  for  some  time,  and  the 
cost  of  an  occasional  renewal  is  unimportant  compared  with  the  satis- 
faction realized  from  the  use  of  dry  steam  in  the  burner. 


100  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  10. 


LIQUID  FUEL  IN  LOCOMOTIVES. 

This!  chapter  is  slifihtly  iibridgcd   from  a  report   to  the  State  Miiiinji;  Bureau  by 

Mr.  O.  S.  Breese. 

The  use  of  petroleum  as  fuel  for  locomotives  involves  a  number  of 
variations  from  established  principles.  The  work  is  very  heavy,  that 
is,  a  large  amount  of  oil  must  be  burned  in  a  small  firebox ;  the  demand 
for  steam  varies  enormously,  and  the  system  must  be  flexible  enough 
to  meet  these  variations  without  excessive  waste;  and  further,  provision 
must  be  made  for  carrying  a  very  low  fire,  or  entirely  extinguishing  it 
for  several  minutes  at  a  time,  during  stops. 

The  first  attempt  to  meet  these  difficulties  was  made  with  various 
appliances  for  vaporizing  the  oil  in  separate  apparatus,  it  being  thought 
that  in  a  locomotive  firebox  it  would  be  impossible  ever  to  vaporize  the 
oil  by  radiant  heat.  These  systems,  however,  proved  so  cumbersome  and 
expensive  to  maintain,  that  very  little  advance  was  made  along  such 
lines,  and  it  was  not  until  the  invention  of  the  combustion-chamber 
firebox,  about  the  year  1882,  that  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  on  locomotives 
became  a  practical  possibility.  This  invention  is  credited  to  a  Scotch- 
man, Thomas  Urquhart,  who  was  Superintendent  of  Motive  Power  on 
the  Garzi-Tsaritzin  Railroad,  in  southeastern  Russia,  from  1881  to  1884. 

The  Combustion  Chamber,  which  now  forms  the  basis  of  the  ordi- 
nary system  for  burning  petroleum  in  locomotives,  consists  essentially 
of  a  fire-brick  box  supported  by  the  ashpan  (the  grate  bars  being 
removed),  the  flame  of  the  burner  entering  at  the  front,  and  the  fire 
gases  passing  out,  and  into  the  firebox  proper,  through  checker  work  or 
other  suitable  openings  in  the  top.  The  object  of  this  combustion 
chamber  hardly  needs  explanation.  It  is  well  known,  of  course,  that 
oil  must  be  vaporized  before  it  enters  into  combination  with  air,  and 
this  vaporization  is  effected  by  radiant  heat  from  the  brick  walls  sur- 
rounding the  fiame.  The  higher  this  heat,  the  more  readily  and  quickly 
will  the  oil  be  vaporized,  and  the  more  complete  and  controllable  the 
combustion.  The  combustion  chamber,  being  of  comparatively  small 
size,  and  out  of  contact  with  the  water  legs  of  the  boiler,  reaches  a 
much  higher  heat  than  it  would  be  either  possible  or  desirable  to  bring 
the  entire  firebox  to,  thus  vaporizing  the  oil  rapidly  and  completely, 
avoiding  smoke  or  waste,  and  making  it  i)0ssiV)le  to  regulate  the  fires 
very  closely.  Further,  by  storing  up  consideral)le  quantities  of  heat 
(by  reason  of  its  high  tenq:)erature)  it  enables  the  fire  to  be  turned 
very  low  without  going  out,  a  difficult  matter  in  a  large  firebox,  or  even 
to  be  turned  completely  out  for  several  minutes,  and  restarted  by  simply 


nf<<. 


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OIL    BURNING  "locomotives 


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if  liquid  fuel  ou  locomotives 

Msciition  is  crediteAo  a  Scoteh- 

-erintendent  of  Motilp  Power  on 

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LIQUID    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES.  101 

turning  on  the  oil.  It  should  l)e  said,  however,  that  turning  out  fire  at 
stops  is  very  hard  on  Hues  and  firebox  sheets,  and  is  not  countenanced 
by  many  superintendents. 

To  Convert  a  Coal-Burning"  Eng-ine  into  an  Oil-Burner,  it  is  neces- 
sary first  to  remove  the  grates  and  grate-frame,  then  to  fit  inside  the 
ashpan  a  suitable  casting,  riveted  to  the  pan  at  the  sides  and  near  the 
top.  This  casting  acts  as  a  support  for  the  interior  brickwork,  and  is 
cored  out  to  admit  air  to  the  firebox  for  combustion.  After  many 
experiments  a  number  of  methods  of  admitting  the  air  have  been 
adopted,  some  taking  the  air  at  the  rear  and  sides,  others  at  the  front 
of  the  ashpan.  The  one  most  suitable  in  any  particnhir  case  will 
<lepend  on  the  construction  of  the  locomotive,  very  little  difference  in 
results  being  apparent. 

A  fire-brick  arch  is  constructed  just  in  front  of  the  fines,  and  should 
be  made  as  low  as  may  be,  the  object  being  to  protect  the  crown  sheet, 
crown  bolts,  and  seams  from  overheating.  (See  Fig.  37.)  The  brick- 
work, which  in  oj)eration  ])ecomes  actually  white  hot,  serves  a  very 
important  purpose  in  this  scheme,  and  although  it  can  not  be  regarded 
as  absolutely  essential,  since  there  are  systems  which  do  without  it,  yet 
there  can  be  no  question  that  nuich  more  uniform  and  reliable  results 
are  obtained  by  its  use.  When  properly  constructed  of  good  material, 
the  brickwork  will  last  for  six  or  eight  months,  but  poor  brick  rapidly 
l)reak  down  under  the  intense  heat. 

The  oil  l)urner  should  he  secured  to  the  bottom  of  the  mud  ring 
{generally),  exactly  centered,  and  at  such  an  angle  that  the  jet  from 
the  burner  will  strike  just  under  the  arch,  as  this  helps  to  break  up  the 
]»articles  of  oil  and  assists  the  combustion.  The  burner  should  be  set 
far  enough  back  to  avoid  carbonization,  if  left  turned  off  in  a  heated 
l)ox,  and  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  cleaned  while  in 
operation,  either  by  a  fixed  cleaning  needle,  or  by  opening  the  nose  of 
the  burner. 

The  oil  is  carried  in  two  tanks  (see  Fig.  38),  one  of  which  is  made  in 
"  V  "  shape  to  fit  in  the  coal  space  of  the  tender,  and  high  enough  to  be 
fiush  with  the  top  of  the  water  tank.  A  second,  and  larger  tank,  rec- 
tangular in  shape,  covers  Ixjth  water  and  lower  oil  tanks,  and  is  fitted 
to  the  latter,  with  an  opening  between.  The  two  tanks,  or  more  prop- 
erly one  doul)le  tank,  have  capacity  for  eight  tons  of  oil,  and  are  firmly 
anchored  to  water  tank  and  tank  frame.  The  one  manhole  is  on  top  of 
the  upper  tank,  directly  over  the  opening  between  up})er  and  lower. 

For  protection  against  acci<U'nts,  a  safety  valve  is  fitted  in  outlet  to 
•oil  tank  {i.  e.,  between  tank  and  burner),  valve  being  held  open  l)y  a 
spring  key.  In  case  of  a  break-in-two,  a  cord  connected  to  the  cab 
draws  out  this  key,  allowing  the  valve  to  close  of  its  own  weight,  thus 
shutting  off  the  fi(^w  of  oil. 


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LIQUID    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES.  101 

turning  on  tlie  oil.  It  should  l)t'  said,  however,  that  turning  out  fire  at 
stops  is  very  hard  on  Hues  and  firebox  sheets,  and  is  not  countenanced 
by  many  superintendents. 

To  Convert  a  Coal-Burning-  Eng-ine  into  an  Oil-Burner,  it  is  neces- 
sary first  to  remove  the  grates  and  grate-frame,  then  to  fit  inside  the 
ashpan  a  suitable  casting,  riveted  to  the  pan  at  the  sides  and  near  the 
to}).  This  casting  acts  as  a  support  for  the  interior  brickwork,  and  is 
cored  out  to  admit  air  to  the  firebox  for  combustion.  After  many 
experiments  a  number  of  methods  of  admitting  the  air  have  been 
adopted,  some  taking  the  air  at  the  rear  and  sides,  others  at  the  front 
of  the  ashpan.  The  one  most  suitable  in  any  particular  case  will 
depend  on  the  construction  of  the  locomotive,  very  little  difference  in 
results  being  apparent. 

A  fire-brick  arch  is  constructed  just  in  front  of  the  fines,  and  should 
be  made  as  low  as  may  be,  the  object  being  to  protect  the  crown  sheet, 
crown  bolts,  and  seams  from  overheating.  (See  Fig.  37.)  The  brick- 
work, which  in  operation  becomes  actually  white  hot,  serves  a  very 
important  purpose  in  this  scheme,  and  although  it  can  not  be  regarded 
as  absolutely  essential,  since  there  are  systems  which  do  without  it,  yet 
there  can  be  no  question  that  much  more  uniform  and  reliable  results 
are  obtained  by  its  use.  When  properly  constructed  of  good  material, 
the  brickwork  will  last  for  six  or  eight  months,  but  poor  Ijrick  rapidly 
l»reak  down  under  the  intense  heat. 

The  oil  burner  should  lie  secured  to  the  bottom  of  the  mud  ring 
(generally),  exactly  centered,  and  at  such  an  angle  that  the  jet  from 
tlie  burner  will  strike  just  under  the  arch,  as  this  helps  to  break  up  the 
j)articles  of  oil  and  assists  the  combustion.  The  burner  should  be  set 
far  enough  back  to  avoid  carbonization,  if  left  turned  off  in  a  heated 
box,  and  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  cleaned  while  in 
■operation,  either  by  a  fixed  cleaning  needle,  or  by  opening  the  nose  of 
the  burner. 

The  oil  is  carried  in  two  tanks  (see  Fig.  38),  one  of  which  is  made  in 
"V"  shape  to  fit  in  the  coal  space  of  the  tender,  and  high  enough  to  be 
flush  with  the  top  of  the  water  tank.  A  second,  and  larger  tank,  rec- 
tangular in  shape,  covers  both  water  and  lower  oil  tanks,  and  is  fitted 
to  the  latter,  Avith  an  opening  between.  The  two  tanks,  or  more  prop- 
erly one  double  tank,  have  capacity  for  eight  tons  of  oil,  and  are  firmly 
anchored  to  water  tank  and  tank  frame.  The  one  manhole  is  on  top  of 
the  upper  tank,  directly  over  the  opening  between  upper  and  lower. 

For  protection  against  accidents,  a  safety  valve  is  fitted  in  outlet  to 
oil  tank  (/.  e.,  between  tank  and  burner),  valve  being  held  open  l)y  a 
spring  key.  In  case  of  a  break-in-two,  a  cord  connected  to  the  cab 
draws  out  this  key,  allowing  the  valve  to  close  of  its  own  weight,  thus 
shuttinji:  off  the  flow  of  oil. 


102  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

When  handling  heavy  oil,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  oil  by  means  of 
steam  coils,  both  to  get  regular  feed,  and  because  of  the  better  spraying 
of  warm  oil.  With  such  oils  it  is  also  necessary  to  carry  a  light  pres- 
sure, up  to  five  pounds,  in  the  tanks,  in  order  to  get  sufficient  feed. 
With  high  gravity  oil,  or  during  the  heated  season,  neither  of  thes« 
precautions  is  necessary. 

In  Firing"  Up  an  Oil-Burning"  Eng-ine  in  the  roundhouse,  or  wher- 
steam  is  available  for  spraying,  a  bvirning  piece  of  oily  waste  is  thrown 
into  the  firebox  and  the  oil  valve  cracked,  the  steam  valve  then  being 
opened  far  enough  to  atomize  the  slight  flow  of  oil,  which  should 
ignite  instantly,  even  in  a  cold  firebox.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
start  with  too  large  a  stream  of  oil,  as  in  a  cold  box  only  a  small  quan- 
tity will  burn,  and  any  excess  which  would  run  into  the  pit  would  be  a 
source  of  danger  later,  when  the  apparatus  becomes  hot.  As  soon  as 
the  fire  is  burning  freely  the  door  is  closed,  but  the  fire  should  be 
watched  for  some  time,  as  until  the  brickwork  is  heated  a  small  amount 
of  water,  always  likely  to  be  present  in  the  tanks,  will  extinguish  the 
flame.  If  the  firebox  was  totally  cold  when  this  occurred,  no  indica- 
tion would  l)e  given,  but  if  even  moderately  hot,  the  cutting  off  of  the  fire 
would  be  readily  detected  by  the  evil-smelling  white  fumes  rising  from 
the  stack.  The  odor  of  these  fumes,  which  is  highly  characteristic,  is 
due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  oil  on  the  heated  brick,  and  is  an 
infallible  warning. 

Where  steam  is  not  available,  it  is  necessary  to  fire  up  with  wood, 
and  in  this  case  much  care  should  be  taken  in  filling  the  firebox,  as 
after  the  arch  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  it  is  quite  fragile,  and 
easily  broken  by  careless  handling  of  solid  fuel.  Care  should  also  be 
taken,  when  starting  off  an  engine  which  has  been  fired  up  with  wood, 
to  see  that  all  unburned  wood  is  removed  from  the  firebox,  as,  there 
being  no  netting  to  retain  sparks,  these  might  be  a  source  of  danger  to 
buildings  or  equipment. 

Pieces  of  brick  from  walls  or  arch  are  likely  to  fall  at  any  time,  and 
a  very  small  obstruction  on  floor  of  combustion  chamber  will  often 
interfere  with  proper  combustion  in  an  astonishing  manner.  A  light 
rake  or  hook  should  be  provided  for  the  removal  of  such  debris.  It  is 
often  the  case,  particularly  where  oils  are  dirty  or  very  heavy,  that  a 
deposit  of  carbon  will  form  in  the  axis  of  the  flame,  generally  in  a  cone 
shape,  l)uilding  out  from  whatever  walls  happen  to  be  in  line.  This 
deposit  is  due  to  incomplete  vaporization  of  the  oil  (see  page  71)  and  is 
the  fault  of  the  burner,  which  may  be  choked,  warped,  or  improperly 
adjusted.  When  this  happens,  the  only  remedy  available  on  the  road 
is  to  remove  the  carl)on  as  often  as  possible,  but  the  burner  should  be 
looked  to  as  soon  as  the  engine  reaches  the  roundhouse. 


I.UiUII)    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES.  108 

In  operating  an  oil-l)urning  engine,  it  is  necessary  to  use  sand  to  eleaii 
the  gum  from  ends  and  inner  surfaces  of  flues,  the  sand  being  applied 
through  an  eil)o\v-shaped  funnel,  made  for  the  purpose,  and  inserted 
through  an  aperture  in  the  fire-door.  When  the  sand  is  being  applied 
l)y  the  fireman,  the  engineer  drops  the  lever  in  the  corner  noteli  and 
has  the  throttle  wide  open;  the  remedy  is  very  effective,  and  needs  t" 
be  used  perha{)s  three  or  four  times  going  over  a  long  and  hard  division. 

In  handling  an  oil-burning  locomotive  on  the  road,  it  is  necessary 
for  engineer  and  fireman  to  work  in  harmony.  That  is,  the  engineei-, 
before  closing  the  throttle,  should  notify  the  fireman,  in  order  that  the 
latter  may  also  close  the  oil  valve,  thus  preventing  excessive  smoke 
and  waste  of  oil.  In  starting,  also,  the  engineer  should  not  open  the 
throttle  until  the  fireman  has  opened  the  oil  valve,  that  the  fire  may  be 
l)urning  before  any  cold  air  is  drawn  into  the  firebox  by  the  exhaust, 
and  tlie  fiow  of  oil  should  be  gradually  increased  as  the  exhaust 
increases.  Care  in  these  respects  will  greatly  reduce  leaks  around  fines, 
crown  sheet  rivets,  and  stay  bolts.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  the  closest 
relation  between  the  strength  of  the  exhaust  and  the  amount  of  air 
drawn  into  the  firebox,  but  while  with  a  coal  burner  the  fire  is  always 
burning,  with  an  oil  burner  it  may  be  almost  or  quite  cut  off,  and  in 
this  ease  if  the  exhaust  continues,  air  will  be  drawn  into  a  very  hot  but 
empty  firebox.     The  effects  of  such  abuse  need  no  comment. 

Over-firing  is  also  extremely  easy  on  an  oil-burning  engine,  and  will 
cause  great  damage  in  a  very  short  time.  When  burning  coal,  if  the 
steam  pressure  drops  back  five  pounds,  it  takes  some  little  time  to  pick 
it  up,  but  when  burning  oil  it  is  easy  to  crowd  the  fire  so  as  to  regain 
the  pressure  almost  instantly.  Where  this  is  done  the  over-heating  of 
the  sheets  does  much  harm,  in  extreme  cases  even  melting  off  rivet 
heads.  To  get  the  best  results  from  oil  burning,  the  oil  supply  should 
be  so  regulated  as  to  raise  steam  at  about  the  same  speed  as  with  coal. 

Spraying"  with  Air  has  been  extensively  tried,  both  for  firing  up  and 
for  steady  running,  l)ut  no  particular  advantage  has  been  demonstrated. 
and  the  disadvantages  are  ol)vious. 

The  Advantages  of  Oil  Burning  are  numerous,  but  may  be  summed 
u})  briefiy  in  the  following  points: 

Economy  in  cost  of  fuel;  this  is  very  great  in  this  State,  but  depends 
of  course  on  comparative  prices  of  coal  and  oil.  It  is  claimed,  on  what 
appears  to  be  good  authority,  that  in  practice  one  pound  of  average  oil 
will  do  the  work,  in  a  locomotive,  of  one  and  three-fourths  pounds  of 
average  coal.  These  results  have  been  reached  in  Russia,  but  the  coal 
there  is  notoriously  poor.  At  any  rate  the  factor  would  be  variable, 
depending  on  relative  fuel  values,  l)ut  it  is  j)r()bable  that,  as  in  station- 
ary practice,  the  actual  economy  in  the  use  of  oil  would  be  greater  than 
would  be  indicated  1)V  the  direct  relation  ix'tween  calorific  values  inulti- 


104  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

plied  by  prices.  The  percentage  of  efficiency  attainable  in  oil  burning  is 
almost  always  greater  than  can  be  had,  under  the  same  conditions,  when 
burning  coal,  and  this  should  hold  good  in  locomotive  practice. 

Ease  with  which  fuel  is  handled;  there  is  no  great  saving  in  direct 
labor  on  this  score,  except  in  handling  fuel  in  store,  as  the  services  of 
the  fireman  are  as  necessary  with  oil  as  with  coal.  But  it  is  a  distinct 
advantage  that  the  fireman  is  enabled  to  give  his  entire  attention  to 
holding  steam  and  regulating  the  fire,  instead  of  putting  in  a  large  part 
of  his  time  in  shoveling  coal. 

Elimination  of  handling  of  ashes;  both  as  regards  disposal  of  same 
at  terminals,  and  in  cleaning  of  ballast. 

Perfect  regulation;  practically  doing  away  with  waste  of  steam  from 
the  safety  valve,  this  being  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  greater 
percentage  of  efficiency  realized  in  the  use  of  oil. 

Reduction  in  time  in  turning  power;  if  water  tank  and  oil  crane  are 
so  spotted  that  oil  and  water  may  be  ta'ken  on  at  the  same  time,  there 
is  no  reason  why  an  engine  should  not  be  turned  in  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  minutes. 

Clinkering  of  engines,  at  terminals  and  on  the  road,  is  entirely  done 
away  with. 

Freedom  from  cinders  and  sparks;  an  advantage  of  more  importance, 
perhaps,  than  any  other.  The  wear  and  tear,  and  necessity  for  cleaning 
engines,  are  much  less,  the  comfort  of  travelers  on  passenger  runs  is 
immeasurably  increased,  and  last  but  not  least,  the  very  destructive  and 
costly  grain  and  forest  fires  due  to  flying  sparks  are  entirely  avoided. 

Against  these  advantages  must  be  set  the  single  drawback,  that  oil 
firing  will,  on  the  average,  reduce  the  life  of  flue  sheets  and  firebox  about 
twenty-five  per  cent.  Where  crews  accustomed  to  firing  with  coal  are 
first  given  charge  of  oil  burners,  the  damage  may  be  greater  for  a  time, 
but  when  the  necessary  precautions  are  once  learned,  as  they  readily 
and  rapidly  will  be,  this  figure  should  not  be  exceeded. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Honn,  at  one  time  Traveling  Fireman  of  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railroad,  San  Joaquin  Division,  writes  the  following  interesting 
letter,  inclosing  sketches  reproduced  herewith: 

"  The  sketches,  which  I  think  will  l)e  clear,  are  made  from  Engine 
"  No.  1450,  which  has  been  l)urning  oil  since  the  20th  of  November, 
*'  1901.  And  here  let  me  say  that  this  engine  has  been  pulling  the  Owl 
"train  (a  limited)  ever  since  her  equipment  with  oil,  between  Kern 
''  City  and  Mendota,  California,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  forty- 
*'  four  miles,  which  she  doubles  every  day.  She  has  never  lost  her  turn 
"  out,  nor  a  minute's  time  on  the  road,  on  account  of  oil  fuel. 

"  In  equipping  an  engine  for  oil  fuel  (on  the  Southern  Pacific)  the 
"  grates    are    removed,  and    a   pan  called    the    inner-pan    substituted. 


LIQUID    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES. 


105 


*'  This  is  bolted  to  side  sheets  at  about  the  same  place  as  grates  were, 
''  and  extends  about  6"  or  8"  below  foundation  ring,  or  position  of 
••  burner.  This  pan  supports  side  walls  and  arches,  and  is  covered  with 
^'  tire-brick,  except  at  air  inlets  K  and  L.     (See  Fig.  83.) 

''  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  box  is  walled  up  all  round  to  about  the 
"  height  of  the  arch.  In  the  case  of  a  firebox  seven  feet  or  more  long, 
"  the  front  wall  is  placed  back  a  distance  from  the  flue  sheet.  This  is 
"  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  a  tiame  to  the  back  of  crown  sheet,  thus 
'■  getting  the  use  of  entire  heating  surface.  The  arrangement  of  walls 
■■  and  arches  gives  almost  an  entire  firebox  of  firc-l)rick,  which  come  to 
"'  a  white  heat,  to  spray  the  oil  into. 

"  But  very  little  change  is  made  in  the  front  end  arrangements, 
'"except  that  no  netting  is  used. 


Fig.  33.     Firebox  and  Front  End,  Engine  1450,  S.  P.  Co. 

"The  supply  of  oil  is  carried  in  tanks  placed  in  the  coal  pit.  (See 
Fig.  34.)  These  carry  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  gallons 
of  oil,  and  are  kept  warm  by  steam  heaters,  connected  with  the  boiler. 
The  oil  is  conveyed  to  valve  H  by  pipe  and  hose,  similar  to  those 
used  for  injectors,  except  that  they  are  about  1^"  in  diameter.  Valve 
H  is  an  ordinary  stopcock,  and  controls  admission  of  oil  to  burner 
and  firebox.  Atmospheric  air  is  admitted  to  oil  pipe  at  I,  and  passes 
through  burner  (see  Fig.  35)  with  the  oil,  which  enters  the  burner  at 
B,  and  runs  along  trough  F  to  point  D.  Here  it  meets  a  steam  jet, 
admitted  to  the  burner  at  A,  and  passes  through  the  l)urner  just 
under  the  oil  trough  to  point  D,  where  it  catches  the  oil  and  discharges 
it  into  the  firebox  through  the  nozzle  E.  Atmospheric  air  is  also 
admitted  to  burner  at  C,  and  is  drawn  to  discharge  nozzle  bv  action 


106 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


"of  steam  jet  (called  atomizer).  The  idea  of  admitting  atmospheric 
"  air  through  the  burner  is  to  get  it  mingled  with  the  gases  and  vapors 
"  at  the  particular  i)oint  where  it  is  most  needed.     Air  is  also  admitted 


is  made 
bj  Hanging  a  piece  of 
3leeJ  30  Od  to  take  a  1 
Nipple  anJ  Piug  Coclt. 

I'craln  Cocli  ^iCj 


Ttiij  Arrangement  of  He&t«r  and 
Fittingi  will  answer  for  anj  class 
of  Tank.  Possiljlj  outlet  to  Burner 
maj  have  to  be  larger  if  it  ij  neccS' 
«arj  to  ojaiie  larger  Burner  for 
Mustodon  or  CooJoUdatioo  Engines 


Standard  l'^  Air  Hoao  ( 
Oil  Pipe  to  Burner.' 


«  Steam  Hose 
•^  Steam  Heater  CoU 


Fig.  :ii.     Tank  Arraiif;t'ineiit,  Engine  1450,  S.  P.  Co. 

''through  the  firebox  through  the  openings  K  and  L  in  the  bottom  of 
'■  inner-pan. 

■"When  till'  tlirottle  is  closed  and  the  fire  l)eing  cut  down,  great  care 
"is  needed  or  fire  will  be  put  out  entirely,  and  this  is  what  makes  oil 


TpipefJ 


Fig.  3.5.     Burner,  Kngine  14.50,  8.  P.  Co. 

"fuel  SO  hard  on  firel)oxes.  (ioing  into  stations  where  stops  are  to  be 
"  made,  the  sheets  are  expanded  with  the  intense  heat,  and  the  careless 
"  fireman,  in  cutting  down  his  fire,  ]>uts  it  entirely  out.     Take  into  eon- 


U i. 


^  F 

L 

■      1! 

LK^riD    FIKI.    IN     1,()C()M()I'I\KS.  107 

"  sidcratioii  natural  draft,  ami  add  to  it  velocity  of  moving  train,  and 
"  punij)  exhaust,  all  drawing  cold  air  through  the  tirel)ox,  cooling  sheetn 
"and  flues,  and  it  will  l)e  seen  that  the  conse(iuences  are  sure  to  be 
*'  disastrous. 

'■  Of  course,  burning  oil  in  this  c-ountry  is  in  its  infancy,  and  there  1? 
*'  room  for  a  great  deal  of  imi)rovement,  but  considering  the  length  of 
•'time  we  have  been  at  it,  it  is  certainly  remarkable  to  see  how  those 
"  engines  go  up  the  hills  with  their  heavy  trains,  with  plenty  of  steam, 
■■  no  smoke,  no  dust,  no  cinders,  and  no  sweating  fireman." 

Combination  Tenders. — Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Southern 
Pacitic  Railroad  Comi»any,  it  is  possible  to  present  here  a  drawing  of  a 
semi-cylindrical  tender  and  tank  for  oil-burning  engines,  of  which 
several  have  been  constructed.  (See  Fig.  36.)  The  tank  is  divided 
into  oil  and  water  compartments,  the  former  of  3300  gallons,  the  latter 
of  7300  gallons  capacity.  The  length,  outside,  is  28'  6",  width  9'  4", 
height  6'  5",  these  being  measurements  on  the  tank  j)roper.  The 
curvature  of  top  is  struck  on  radius  of  4'  8",  the  lower  part  of  the  sides 
l)eing  straight.  The  tank  is  constructed  of  i"  steel  (sheets  used  being 
69|"  wide),  with  lap  seams,  single  riveted  wdth  f"  rivets,  pitched  2".  A 
running  board  of  j\"  material,  10"  in  width,  is  carried  along  each 
side,  with  hand  holds  of  1"  iron  pipe. 

Manhole  ring  and  plate  for  oil  compartment  are  of  cast  iron,  with 
oj)ening  HV  in  diameter.  The  cover  is  slightly  convex  in  form,  and  is 
held  in  place  by  three  bolts  having  hand  wheel  heads  for  ease  of 
removal.  The  opening  is  provided  with  a  six-mesh  strainer,  22"  deep, 
and  tapering  to  6"  at  the  bottom.  The  interior  of  the  compartment  is 
provided  with  lateral  and  intersecting  splash  plates,  and  with  a  steam 
coil  of  1"  pipe  on  the  bottom.  A  small  coil  of  i"  pipe,  in  series  with 
the  larger  coil,  surrounds  the  oil  outlet.  (It  should  be  noted  that  these 
tanks  are  built  for  the  heavy  oil  of  Kern  County.)  The  outlet  valve, 
which  discharges  into  a  I5"  pipe,  is  controlled  by  a  vertical  lift  rod 
attached  to  a  bell  crank,  the  latter  being  connected  wdth  another  bell 
crank  on  the  outside  of  the  front  head.  It  is  customary  to  connect  the 
outside  bell  crank  with  some  point  in  the  cab  by  means  of  a  string,  so 
that  in  case  of  a  break-in-two  the  jerk  on  the  string,  in  conjunction 
with  the  spiral  spring  above  the  valve,  will  operate  to  close  the  latter. 
The  vertical  rod  just  beside  the  valve  rod,  and  extending  through  the 
top  of  the  tank,  is  a  measuring  stick. 

The  water  compartment  has  the  usual  equi})ment  of  splash  jtlates  and 
outlet  valves,  the  latter  being  surrounded  by  copper  strainers,  and  dis- 
charging into  3"  pipes  leading  beneath  the  floor  to  the  front  of  the 
tender. 

Cost  of  Converting"  a  Coal-Burning-  Engine. — Through  the  cour- 
tesy of  the  Santa   Fe   Haili-oad   ( '()nii)aiiy,  a   detailed   statement   is   here 


T""  "''   { ■ 


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-J 

...4 

1,1(^111)    KIKI.    I.N     l.oiOMdl'lX'KS.  107 

'' sideratioii  natural  draft,  aiul  add  to  it  velocity  of  moving  train,  and 
^'  pump  exhaust,  all  drawing  eold  air  through  the  tirebox,  cooling  sheet? 
■'  and  Hues,  and  it  will  l)e  seen  that  tlie  conseciucnces  are  sure  to  be 
'■  disastrous. 

'"Of  course.  l»urning  oil  in  this  country  is  in  its  infancy,  and  there  ie 
''  room  for  a  great  deal  of  improvement,  but  considering  the  length  of 
•"time  we  have  been  at  it,  it  is  certainly  remarkable  to  see  how  those 
''engines  go  up  the  hills  with  their  heavy  trains,  with  plenty  of  steam, 
■■  no  smoke,  no  dust,  no  cinders,  and  Jio  sweating  fireman." 

Combination  Tenders. — Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  Comi)any,  it  is  possible  to  present  here  a  drawing  of  a 
semi-cylindrical  tender  and  tank  for  oil-burning  engines,  of  which 
several  have  been  constructed.  (See  Fig.  36.)  The  tank  is  divided 
into  oil  and  water  compartments,  the  former  of  3300  gallons,  the  latter 
of  7300  gallons  capacity.  The  length,  outside,  is  28'  6",  width  9'  4", 
height  6'  5",  these  being  measurements  on  the  tank  proper.  The 
curvature  of  top  is  struck  on  radius  of  4'  8",  the  lower  part  of  the  sides 
l)eing  straight.  The  tank  is  constructed  of  i"  steel  (sheets  used  being 
69|"  wide),  with  lap  seams,  single  riveted  with  |"  rivets,  pitched  2".  A 
running  board  of  j\"  material,  10"  in  width,  is  carried  along  each 
side,  with  hand  holds  of  1"  iron  pipe. 

Manhole  ring  and  plate  for  oil  compartment  are  of  cast  iron,  with 
opening  16"  in  diameter.  The  cover  is  slightly  convex  in  form,  and  is 
held  in  place  by  three  bolts  having  hand  wheel  heads  for  ease  of 
removal.  The  opening  is  provided  with  a  six-mesh  strainer,  22"  deep, 
and  tapering  to  6"  at  the  bottom.  The  interior  of  the  compartment  is 
])rovided  with  lateral  and  intersecting  splash  plates,  and  Avith  a  steam 
coil  of  1"  pipe  on  the  bottom.  A  small  coil  of  i"  pipe,  in  series  with 
the  larger  coil,  surrounds  the  oil  outlet.  (It  should  be  noted  that  these 
tanks  are  built  for  the  heavy  oil  of  Kern  County.)  The  outlet  valve, 
which  discharges  into  a  I5"  pipe,  is  controlled  by  a  vertical  lift  rod 
attached  to  a  bell  crank,  the  latter  being  connected  with  another  bell 
crank  on  the  outside  of  the  front  head.  It  is  customary  to  connect  the 
otitside  bell  crank  with  some  point  in  the  cab  by  means  of  a  string,  so 
that  in  case  of  a  break-in-two  the  jerk  on  the  string,  in  conjunction 
with  the  spiral  spring  above  the  valve,  will  operate  to  close  the  latter. 
The  vertical  rod  jvist  beside  the  valve  rod,  and  extending  thnnigh  the 
top  of  the  tank,  is  a  measuring  stick. 

The  water  compartment  has  the  usual  equi})nient  of  splash  j»lates  and 
outlet  valves,  the  latter  being  stirrounded  by  copper  strainers,  and  dis- 
charging into  3"  pipes  leading  beneath  the  floor  to  the  front  of  the 
tender. 

Cost  of  Converting"  a  Coal-Burning-  Engine. — Through  the  cour- 
tesy of  the  Santa  Fe  IJaili-oad  ('()iii])aiiy,  a  detailed  statement  is  here 


108  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

given  of  the  cost,  for  labor  and  material,  incurred  in  changing  a  20"  by 
26"  ten-wheel  engine  from  coal  to  oil  burning,  the  figures  being  approxi- 
mately correct  for  nearly  all  classes  converted  by  that  company,  with 
the  exception  of  the  charge  for  fire-brick,  which  would  naturally  be  less 
in  a  smaller  engine. 

Oil  reservoir:  drilling,  tapping,  placing,  and  securing $21  60 

Automatic  valve 3  90 

Heater  in  oil  tank 5  20 

Heater  pipes 1  20 

Reducing  valve i  TA 

Air  pipes 6  30 

Burner 3  10 

Heater  box 3  00 

Heater  hose 1  40 

Oil  hose 2  15 

Stopcocks 1  53 

Regulators 2  16 

Atomizers  and  pipes 95 

Brick  walls  and  arch 42  25 

Oil  pipes 55 

Erecting:  blacksmith,  machinist,  and  labor 32  50 

Removing  coal-burning  appliances 3  00 

Ashpan:  material,  building,  and  placing 14  75 

Sandbox  and  funnel 2  50 

Pop  and  air  gauge 5  06 

Oil  tanks  (two) 174  83 

Total $332  47 

The  first  engine  fitted  for  burning  oil,  on  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad,  was? 

Southern  California  No.  10,  in  the  local  freight   service   between   Los 

Angeles,  San   Bernardino,  and  Barstow.     The   oil-burning    apparatus 

was  put  in  place  early  in  December,  1894,  and  the  performance  card 

for  that  month  shows  as  follows: 

Total  miles  run 3,147 

Fuel  oil,  cost  per  mile 21.68  cents. 

Repair  accotint,  per  mile 2.25  cents. 

Miles  run  per  ton  of  fuel  oil 34.34 

Total  fuel  oil  used 91  tons  1290  lbs. 

Cost  of  oil  per  ton $7.44 

During  this  time,  engines  burning  coal  on  this  run  made  about  fif- 
teen miles  per  ton  of  coal. 

Locomotive  performance  statistics  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1902, 
for  the  Southern  California  Division  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  are  as 
follows : 

Total  miles  run 1,948,522 

Average  miles  run  per  engine 48,987 

Fuel  oil,  cost  per  mile 17.34  cents. 

Repair  account,  per  mile 9.35  cents. 

Miles  run  per  ton  of  fuel  oil 29.91 

Total  fuel  oil  used 65,157  tons. 

Average  cost  of  oil,  per  ton $5.18 


LIQUID    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES.  109 

The  great  divergence  in  rei):iir  charges  per  mile  is  due  to  two  reasons: 
tirst,  that  engine  No.  10  was  thoroughly  overhauled  ])efore  heing  oil- 
titted,  and  all  brickwork,  arches,  etc.,  were  ni'w;  second,  that  the  repair 
account  for  1901-02  included  the  retitting  of  a  nund)er  of  old  engines. 

Locomotive  Fuel  Tests. — The  following  records  of  fuel  tests  on  loco- 
motives are  due  to  covirtesy  of  the  Motive  Power  De])artment  of  the 
Santa  Fe  Railroad  Company,  Southern  California  Division: 

A  comparative  test  of  Texas  and  California  petroleums  (see  Tal)Ie  11 
below)  was  made  under  the  conditions  here  noted: 

Texas  Petroleum^ 

Source — Beaumont,  Texas. 
Gravity— 21.5°  Beauin^. 
Weight  per  gallon — 7.644  pounds. 
Viscosity — Thin,  used  cold. 

CaJifornia  Pet  role  ii  ni — 

Source — Olinda  (Fullerton  tield),  California. 
Gravity— 15.5°  Beaum4. 
Weight  per  gallon — 7.710  pounds. 
Viscosity — Thick,  warmed  before  using. 

Engine  Used — 

18"  X  24"  eight-wheel  Manchester. 

Running  in — 

Local  passenger  service,  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino. 

Ntnnber  of  Trips — 

Ten  with  each  oil,  over  the  same  run,  with  the  exception  that  on  two  trips,  due  to 
change  in  time-card,  run  was  extended  from  Riverside  to  Casa  Blanca,  4.1  miles. 
This  accounts  for  the  difference  of  16  engine  miles  and  32  car  miles  on  the  two  records. 

Roiindhov.se  Oil  Consumption — 

On  account  of  the  varying  amount  of  oil  used  in  the  roundhouse  on  the  different 
runs,  due  to  varying  lay-over,  it  was  thought  fair  to  divide  the  total  amount  used 
equally  between  the  runs;  this  accounts  for  the  uniform  figure  of  440  pounds. 

Injector  Waste  Water — 

The  water  wasted  is  the  amount  lost  at  the  injector  overflow.  This  was  determined 
by  attaching  an  automatic  counter  to  the  injector  handle,  thus  recording  the  num- 
ber of  times  of  application,  and  averaging  the  waste  per  application  from  a  number 
of  trials  collected  and  weighed,  the  average  being  20  pounds  overflow  to  each  opening 
of  the  injector. 


no 


I'KTKOLEUM    IN    CAI.IFOHNIA. 


TABLE   11. 


COMPARATIVE  LOCOMOTIVE  TESTS  OF  TEXAS  AND  CALIFORNIA  OILS 
BY  SANTA  FE  RAILROAD. 


ouiids    of    oil    used    on 
roiid 


Pounds    of    oil 
roundliousc 


used    in 


r, 


)il  used,  total. 


Pounds  of  oil  used  per  ton 
mile,  excludinfi  amount 
used  in  roundhouse 

Pounds  of  oil  used  per  ton  ( 
mile,  incluiling  amount  -; 
used  in  roundhouse ( 

I'ounds  of  oil  used  per  car  ( 
iinle,  excluding  amount  -' 
used  in  roundhouse ( 

Pounds  of  oil  used  per  car 
mile,  including  amount 
used  in  roundliouse 

lOngine  miles  per  ton  of 
oil,  excluding  amount 
used  in  roundhouse 

Engine  miles  per  ton  of 
od,  including  amount 
used  in  roundhouse 

\\'ater  used,  pounds 


Water  wasted,  pounds \ 

Waterevaporated,  pounds  - 

Pounds  of  water  evajjor 
ated  per  pound  of  oil- 
actual  

Pounds  of  water  evapor-  ( 
ated  from  and  at  212°  F.  4 
per  pound  of  oil I 

Steam  pressiire  (average),  ( 
pounds "/ 

'I'emperature  of  feed  water  \ 
(average),  °F "( 

Temperature  of  fuel  oil  ( 
(average),  °F '( 

Average  speed  in  miles  per  j 
hour,deductn'g  for  stops  1 


Kngine  mileage 


Car  mileage  . 


a: 

P  3  3 

'■   §a 

;  vz 
;  g(H 

'  2  o 


E»  2-'^ 


cc5 


ra  5Sc 


■fon  miles- 


Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 
Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Tex. 

Cal. 


3,50<^ 
.3,573 

440 
440 

3,946 
4,013 

0.31728 
0.32342 

0.35706 
0.36331 

9.6840 
9.7455 

10.8585 
10.9478 

49.70 
48.80 

44.16 
43.44 

38,324 
40,430 

780 
807 

37,544 
39,624 

10.707 
11.091 

12.869 
13.286 

159.8 
161.0 

66.2° 

70.2° 

69.8° 
80.4° 

36.72 
36.05 

87.1 
87.1 

:i65 
368 

11,109 
11,079 


SC2 

c  z 


fo 


a 


•C  ft  C 


3,291 
3,620 

2,735 
2,592 

440 
440 

440 
440 

3,731 
4,060 

3,175 
3,032 

0.29333 
0.2<J954 

0.40144 
0.38656 

0.33255 
0.33597 

0.46606 
0.45201 

8.9429 
8.7927 

11.5401  ; 
10.9395 

10.1386 
9.8619 

13.3966 
12.7918 

59.99 
59.05 

57.76 
60.98  i 

52.91 
52.65 

49.74  ! 
52.12  ' 

37,484 
43,098 

30,162 

28,957 

680 
830 

507 
553 

36,304 

42,268 

29,656 
28,404 

11.168 
11.674 

10.842  \ 
10.958  i 

13.393 
13.979 

13.005 
13.129  1 

159.2 
161.2 

159.8 
160.6 

69.2° 
70.8° 

68.5° 
71.0° 

75.7° 
81.7° 

68.3° 
82.5° 

37.^9 
36.17 

38.44 
36.22 

98.7 
106.9 

78.9 
78.9 

368 
413 

237 
237 

11,219 

12,128 

6,812 
6,707 

3,888 
3,705 

440 
440 

4,328 
4,146 

0.34624 
0.35151 


0.33529 
0.33588 


33,081 
33,149 

4,400 
4,40<i 

37,481 
37.549 


0.38545   0.37988 
0.3932iJ  0.38046 


10.7601   10.1320 
10.6465   9.9278 


11.9787 
11.9108 


44.43 
47.09 


40.26 
42.05 


11.4796 
11.2456 


52.60 
53.45 


46.42 
47.19 


44,016   ,  368,461 

43,608   i  381, .574 

9(K)   i  7,020 

930   I  7,600 

43,116  I I  361,441 

42,678  I  373.974 


11.090 
11.515 

13.261 
13.769 

159.0 
161.2 

72.1° 
72.5° 

76.0° 
86.5° 

35.43 
35.79 

87.1 
87.1 

361 
348 

11,232 
10,539 


10.926 
11.281 


13.099 
13.504 


159.4 
161.5 


69.0° 
71.1° 


72.4° 
82.8° 


37.04 
36.06 


870 
886 

3,262 
3,339 

98,664 
98,693 


LIQUID   FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES. 


Ill 


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Corrected    for 
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from     and    at 

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X       CB       t^ 

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CO 

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Steam,  percent. 

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Front  End  Tem- 

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per  Pound   of 

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1-1 

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Duration  of  Test, 

0^ 

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8— BUL.  32 


112 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Comparative  tests  of  various  coals  and  oils  have  also  been  made  ])y  the 
Santa  Ft;  Railroad,  Table  12,  on  page  111,  Ijeing  from  a  series  of  tests 
made  at  Toi)eka,  Kansas,  during  1901.  For  a  variety  of  reasons  the 
burners  used  are  here  designated  by  number,  it  being  desired  to  show 
at  this  point  merely  a  comparison  Ijetween  the  values  of  the  stated 
varieties  of  coal  and  oil,  in  this  service.  It  may  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  difference  between  the  performance  of  the  various  burners  is 
not  great  enough  to  lead  one  to  look  for  any  great  difference  in  their 
value,  so  far  as  efficiency  is  concerned  ;  this  corresponds  with  the 
general  experience  in  stationary  work. 

The  details  as  to  conditions  under  which  these  tests  were  made  are 
not  included  in  the  data  at  hand: 


TABLE  13.     EVAPORATIVE  TESTS  OF  OIL  ON  LOCOMOTIVE,  MADE  BY  SANTA  FE  RAIL- 
ROAD AT  SAN  BERNARDINO,  CAL.,  OCTOBER   14,   15,  AND  16,   1902. 


Date,  1902. 

Oct.  14. 

Oct.  15.    1 

Oct.  16. 

Oct.  16. 

Average. 

Extra. 
Clear. 

2h     1501 

25°' 

Extra. 
Clear. 

2"   47'° 
13" 

Extra. 
Clear. 

4h     50m 
Ih    54m 

Extra. 
Clear. 

4h      4ni 
Ih   13m 

3i>  29>'< 

56™ 

Actual  running  time 

Ih     50m 

2h    34m 

2"   56"° 

2h  51m 

2h  33"> 

Average  running  jjpeed,  miles  per  hr. 

1.3.77 

9.81 

8.60 

8.84 

10.26 

i  Loads. -- 
Number  of  cars  in  train  __  J 

1  Empties 

3 
11 

10 

9 

10 

9 

8 
8 

318 

+351 

365 

360 

349 

Temperature  of  oil,  degrees  Fahr 

115 

126 

147i 

150 

134.^ 

Gravity  of  oil,  degs.  Beaumg  at  60°  F. 

12.9 

14.1 

1.3.0 

13.8 

13.5 

Average  pounds  boiler  pressure 

168 

184 

186 

185 

181 

Total  pounds  of  oil  consumed 

4,922 

6,820 

6,990 

7,285 

6,5(H 

Total  i)<)unds  of  water  evaporated*.. 

53,740 

69,135 

78,679 

75,508 

69,266 

Pounds    of    water    evaporated    i)er 

10.92 
8,014 

10.14 
8,443 

11.26 
9,198 

10.36 
9,072 

10.67 

8,682 

Oil  ])urni'd  i)cr  ItHi  ton  miles 

61.42 
72 

80.78 
70 

75.99 
66 

80.30 
65^ 

74.62 

Temperature  of  water,  degrees  Fahr. 

68.^ 

Remarks 

Low  steam; 
oil  too  cold  to 
atomize  well. 

Engine 

smoked 

badly. 

Engine 
smoked 
slightly. 

Engine 
smoked, 
slightly. 

*No  deduction-  iiir  water  lost  at  overtiow. 


t'2;i-t(iii  car  set  out  at  Verdeinoiit. 


No.  of 

Traill. 

2 

No.  of 

Stops. 

20 

(illlllMlS  of 

Oil. 
ItJO.lH 

(ialloiis  of 
Walor. 
2,146 

2 

20 

13<j.8(i 

2,069 

2 

19 

137.50 

1,916 

2 

20 

137.18 

2,300 

6 

18 

137.50 

1,830 

2 

18 

136.86 

1,916 

LIQUID    FUEL    IN    LOCOMOTIVES.  113 

TABLE   14.     EVAPORATIVE  TEST  OF  OIL  AS  FUEL  ON   SAN   PEDRO.  LOS  ANGELES 
&  SALT  LAKE  RAILWAY. 

Oil  trips  from  S;iii  Pedro  to  Los  Aiifjclt's,  up  a  oiii'-sixlh  of  one  percent  fi;rade,  witli 
train  of  four  passenger  cars.  Distance,  28  miles.  Time,  one  hour.  I'^ngine,  Hrool<s, 
ten  wlieels,  20"  x  28"  cylinders,  piston  valve;  weight,  153.^  tons. 

Date,  l'.t(V2. 
.July  25 
.July  26 
August  5 
August  6 
August  6 
August  7 

Average  num])er  of  barrels  of  oil  per  trip,  3.35.     Evaporation  at  60°  F.,  14.99. 

Average  number  of  gallons  of  water  per  trip,  2029.5.  Evaporation  from  and  at 
212°  F.,  18.19. 

Average  number  of  gallons  of  oil  per  car,  35.17.     Oil  per  car  per  mile,  1.25. 

Oil,  asphaltuni  base,  of  15°  gravity  Beauiii^,  reckoned  100%  pure,  although  containing 
about  5%  moisture  and  foreign  matter.  Used  gravity  pressure  only.  Oil  weighed  8 
pounds  per  gallon;  water,  8.33  pounds  per  gallon.  Xo  water  l)lown  out  of  boiler 
between  measurements. 

The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  Company  has  lately  adopted  a  system 
of  setting  which  does  away  with  combustion  chamber.  The  burner  is 
introduced  through  the  froiit  end  of  the  ashpan,  just  below  the  mud 
ring.  Air  for  combustion  enters  at  the  usual  point,  through  the  bottom 
of  the  ashpan  near  the  rear  end,  and  passes  to  the  forward  end  under  a 
floor  of  fire-l)rick  laid  on  iron  plates.  On  reaching  the  front  of  the  pan 
it  is  turned  l^ack  by  a  second  floor  of  similar  construction,  placed  just 
below  the  level  of  the  burner,  finally  issuing  into  the  firebox,  at  the  rear 
end,  at  a  high  temperature,  having  been  heated  by  contact  with  the  hot 
brickwork  of  the  channels.  The  fiame  from  the  burner  strikes  a  heavy 
fire-])rick  wall  at  the  rear  end  of  the  firebox,  turning  up  and  back  into 
the  tubes.  As  the  burner  is  turned  directly  away  from  the  tube-sheet, 
there  is  no  possibility  of  the  flame  playing  directly  on  tube  ends,  and 
the  expensive  and  cumbersome  arch  is  thus  avoided. 


CHAPTER  11. 

LIQUID  FUEL  ON  STEAMSHIPS. 

The  use  of  petroleum  on  steamships,  while  very  important  from  the 
commercial  standpoint,  and  of  considerable  interest,  involves  very 
little  departure  from  the  principles  established  for  the  use  of  oil  in 
stationary  work.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  compressed  air  is  generally 
(though  not  exclusively)  used  in  place  of  steam,  for  injecting  the  oil, 
and  that  either  water-tulje  or  inteniallv-tirefl   ])oilers  are   used  almost 


114 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


without  exception,  the  arrangement  of  tanks,  pumps,  piping,  and  burn- 
ers is  nuu'li  the  same  as  would  l)e  found  in  a  power  ]dant  of  the  same 
general  dimensions  on  land. 

The  commercial  importance  of  the  use  of  oil  for  marine  power  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  there  are  now  running  out  of  San  Francisco  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  vessels  using  oil  for  fuel,  the  gross  tonnage 
being  106,543.  A  list  of  these  vessels,  furnished  through  the  courtesy 
of  Messrs.  Bolles  and  Bulger,  United  States  Local  Inspectors  of  Steam 
Vessels,  follows: 


TABLE  15.    LIST  OF  OIL-USING  VESSELS  LICENSED  AT  THE  PORT  OF  SAN  FRANCISCO. 


Gross 
Name.  Tonnage.  Service. 

Aberdeen    499  Coaster. 

A.  C.  Freese 20.'i  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Acme -116  C'oaster. 

Ada   Warren 4.'S  

A.  H.  Payson 15S  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Alameda SlfjS  S.  F.  to  Honolnlu. 

Albion  River 450  Coaster. 

Alcatraz    .  2.5.5  Coaster. 

Alice    - 400  Yukon  River. 

Alliance 679  Coaster. 

Alton 106  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Amador 9*5  S.  F.  Bay  ferry. 

Apache    9:^S  Sacramento  River. 

Arctic 392  S.  F.  to  Eureka. 

Argyle 2953  Coaster. 

Asuncion... 2196  S.  F.  to  Redondo. 

Aurelia ...   .  440  S.  F.  to  Portland. 

Bee 500  Coaster. 

Bella   370  Yukon  River. 

Berkeley. 1945  Oakland  ferry. 

Brooklyn 674  Coaster. 

Brunswick 4.50  Coaster. 

Cazadero 1500  Sausalito  ferry. 

Centralia 800  Coaster. 

Chas.  Counselman  123  Coaster. 

Charles  R.Spencer  474  Coaster. 

Chehalis 663  Coaster. 

Columbia 2721  S.  F.  to  Portland. 

Comet 50  Columbia  River  tus. 

Coronado 308  Ferry,  San  Diego. 

Coronado   -578  Coaster. 

Dauntless 269  Tug. 

Del  Norte 4.50  Coaster. 

Despatch     _  i'i9H  Coaster. 

Dollar  10  Launch. 

Dover 244  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Eagle 2  Liiiincli. 

El  Capitan     IKK)  Oakland  ferry. 

Klkkader        31  At  I'ortland. 

Kiicinal 2014  Oakland  ferry. 

Knterpri.se 2675  Coaster. 

Eureka 484  Coaster. 

Eureka  of  Seattle.  3015  Coaster. 

F.  A.  Kilburn 450  Coaster. 

Falcon 117  Coaster. 

Flora  185  Coaster. 


Gross 
Name.  Tonnage.  Service. 

Florence 90  Yukon  River. 

Fort  Bragg r!17  Sacramento  River. 

Frances  Leggett  ..  2800  Coaster. 

Fulton ..  :^«6  Coaster. 

Garden  City 1080  Oakland  ferry. 

G.  C.  Lindauer 4.59  S.  F.  to  Gray's  Harbor 

General  Frisbie...  544  S.  F.  to  Vallejo. 

Geo.  Loomis 691  Oil-tank  coaster. 

Geo.  W.  Elder.     ..  1729  S.  F.  to  Portland. 

Hannah         1211  At  Portland. 

Hazel 80  Puget  Sound. 

Hercules 96  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Herman... 819  Yukon  River. 

Hermosa 454  Coaster. 

H.E.Wright 562  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

H.  J.  Corcoran  ....  682  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

laqua    •-   .  712  Coaster. 

Imp. 10  Launch. 

Iralda    90  .\.t  Portland. 

Jacinto 235  San  Francisco  Bay. 

J.D.Peters    8i44  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

J.  S.  Higgins 4.50  Coaster. 

Kehani  118  Columbia  River. 

Leader 400  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

Leah 477  Alaska. 

Leon 692  Yukon  River. 

Linda    692  Yukon  River. 

Louisa  ..   717  

Luella    412  Coaster. 

Mariposa   31.58  S.  F.  to  Tahiti. 

Marshtield :W,s  Coaster. 

Mary  Garratt 810  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

Monticello 226  S.  F.  to  Vallejo. 

Modoc 929  S.  F.  to  Sacramento. 

Napa  City. 178  S.  F.  to  Napa. 

Nebraskan   4408  S.  F.  to  New  York. 

Nevadan 440S  S.  F.  to  Honolulu. 

Newark .  1783  Oakland  ferry. 

No  Wonder 269  Columbia  River. 

Oakland 1672  Oakland  ferry. 

Ocean  Wave 724  Pt.  Richmond  ferry. 

Olympic 4.50  Coaster. 

Pasadena 3W)  Coaster. 

Piedmont 1854  Oakland  ferry. 

Pilot 150      ..  

Pomo 3(')8  S.  F.  to  Point  Arena. 


i  Corrected  to  March  30, 1904. 


LUjriI)    FUKL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


115 


TABLE   15.     LIST  OF  OIL-USING  VESSELS     Continued. 


Gro8s 
Name.  Tonnage.  Service. 

Prt'Utiss... I')()  S.F.  toTilliunodk  Uiiy. 

President    MA  S.  F.  to  Ahiskd. 

Priscilla /il  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Red  Bluff 24t)  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Rcdondo 670  Coaster. 

Rescue 172  Tug. 

Richmond l:i.')  Tug. 

Rosencrans 2700  Coaster. 

Sadie 276  AtSeattle. 

Salvador 800  

Samoa 377  Coaster. 

San  Gabriel 484  Coaster. 

San  Joaquin  No.  2.  242  Sacramento  River. 

San  Joaquin  No.  :>.  oiO  Sacramento  River. 

San  Joaquin  No.  4.  365  Sacramento  River. 

San  Jose 111.5  Berkeley  ferry. 

San  Pablo 1.5*4  Pt.  Richmond  ferry. 

Santa  Monica 497  Coaster. 

Sarah ..  1211  Yukon  River. 

Sausalito 1766  Sausalito  ferry. 

Sea  Fox 69  Tug. 

Sea  King 181  Tug. 

Sea  Prince 58  Tug. 

Sea  Queen Ill  Tug. 


Gross 
Name.  Tonnage.  Service. 

Searchlight l()i>  - 

Sea  River 80  Tug. 

Shasta 722  Coaster. 

Solano 3549  PortCosta  fr'glil  ferry. 

South  Bay <KX)  Coaster. 

St.  Helena 205  S.  F.  to  Napa. 

St.  Vallier --.  60  San  Joaquin  River. 

S\isie.- 1211  Yukon  River. 

Tamali)ais 1554  Sausalito  ferry. 

T.C.Walker 786  S.  F.  to  Stockton. 

Thoroughfare 1012  Oakland  freight  ferry. 

Tiger 250  Tug. 

T.J.Potter 1017  

Transit -..  1506  Oakland  freight  ferry. 

Union 67  Tug. 

Valletta 419  S.  F.  to  Sacramento. 

Varina 150  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Vulcan 327  Coaster. 

Warrior 122  Coaster. 

Wizard 139  Coaster. 

YerbaBuena 1115  Berkeley  ferry. 

137  vessels 106,543  gross  tons. 


Where  small  vessels  ply  on  the  bay,  or  to  nearby  coast  ports,  fuel 
supply  is  always  available  at  close  range,  and  the  minimum  tank  capacity 
•  >ften  need  not  be  more  than  will  hold  a  few  hours'  run;  but  where  oil- 
using  vessels  ply  to  distant  ports  at  which  oil  is  not  to  be  had,  provision 
for  the  return  trip  must  be  made  in  calculating  the  necessary  tankage. 
Fuel  oil  is  now^  kept  in  store  at  Los  Angeles,  Port  Harford,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  Portland,  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  at  points  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  at  some  Asiatic  ports. 

Storag'e  Space. — If  a  vessel  was  intended  to  run  between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  some  port  where  oil  for  the  return  trip  could  be  had,  the 
storage  space  would  be  about  56%  of  that  required  for  coal.  For  every 
liundred  tons  of  coal  recjuired  on  the  trip,  four  hundred  barrels  of  oil 
would  be  needed,  if  we  take  the  usual  estimate  of  four  barrels  to  the  ton 
of  coal;  this  tigure  probably  holds  good,  on  the  average,  on  sea  as  well 
as  on  land.  Four  hundred  barrels  of  oil  occupy  a  space  of  2246  cubic 
feet,  net.  One  liundred  tons  of  average  steam  coal  would  occupy  a  space 
of  about  4000  cubic  feet,  making  the  space  required  for  the  oil  56%  of 
that  taken  liy  the  coal.  But  if  the  vessel  ran  to  a  })ort  where  coal  fuel 
for  the  return  trip  was  available,  while  oil  was  not  to  l)e  had,  the  space 
required  for  the  oil  would  be  just  double  the  above  amount,  or  12%  in 
excess  of  the  coal  space  necessary.  This  comparison  overlooks,  how- 
ever, one  fact  of  considerable  practical  imi)ortance:  that  coal  must,  for 
obvious  reasons,  be  stored  close  to  the  boiler,  while  oil,  being  readily 


116  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

l)Uini)ed  from  any  point  desired,  may  often  be  stored  in  space  not  other- 
wise useful. 

Fuel  Weig'ht. — If  a  vessel  plies  to  a  port  where  oil  for  return  fuel  is 
available,  the  weight  of  oil  carried  is  about  60%  of  that  of  the  equivalent 
coal.  For  every  hundred  tons  (224,000  pounds)  of  coal  consumed  on 
the  trip,  four  hundred  barrels  of  oil  would  be  required,  weighing,  at  15^ 
gravity,  337  pounds  per  barrel,  or  134,800  pounds.  As  the  fuel  is,  gen- 
erally at  least,  used  in  equal  amounts  every  hour  of  the  trip,  V)oth  solid 
and  liquid  fuel  carried  would  diminish  in  weight  from  the  gross  amount 
at  the  start  to  zero  at  the  end  of  the  trip,  and  the  average  weight  carried 
would  of  course  be  half  the  initial  weight,  or  112,000  pounds  for  coal, 
and  67,400  pounds  for  oil,  making  the  weight  of  oil  60.2%  of  weight  of 
coal. 

But  if  a  vessel  is  on  a  run  where  oil  is  available  at  one  end  only, 
while  coal  may  be  had  at  both  ends,  the  weight  of  oil  carried  is  mucli 
in  excess  of  that  of  coal.  Taking  the  same  hundred  tons  of  coal  to 
represent  the  amount  used  on  the  run,  the  coal  carried  would  be  the 
half  of  one  hundred  tons  to  each  run,  or  one  hundred  tons  (224,000 
pounds)  to  the  round  trip.  Oil  Avould  have  to  be  carried  on  the  out 
trip  for  the  return,  so  that  the  vessel  would  carry  on  the  out  trip 
202,200  pounds,  and  on  the  return  67,400  pounds,  a  total  of  269,600 
pounds,  or  an  excess  of  20.4%  over  the  average  weight  of  coal. 

As  would  be  expected  from  experience  on  land,  the  use  of  oil  at  sea  is 
the  means  of  increasing  the  speed  capacity,  and  of  extending  the  sailing 
radius.  It  materially  reduces  the  fire-room  force,  as  the  coal-passer  is 
eliminated,  and  one  fireman  can,  on  a  large  vessel  burning  oil,  do  the 
work  of  four  where  coal  is  used.  It  reduces  the  labor  in  port,  on  clean- 
ing both  outside  and  inside  of  boiler-room.  The  claim  was  once  made 
that  the  use  of  oil  shortened  the  life  of  the  boiler,  but  this  belief  seems 
to  be  amply  disproven  by  longer  experience.  In  tropical  climates  it  is 
a  material  factor  that  the  fire-room  temperature  is  considerably  reduced, 
where  oil  is  used,  and  the  very  hard  labor  of  shoveling  coal  and  slicing 
fires  at  high  temperatures  done  away  with.  The  oil  fire,  also,  for  reasons 
already  pointed  out,  contains  in  itself  the  elements  of  moderate  forced 
draft,  and  obviates  the  necessity  of  air  pressure  on  the  fire-room,  up  to 
a  certain  point,  say  that  at  which  one  inch  of  water  pressure  would  be 
carried  with  coal. 

In  spite  of  the  wide  extent  to  which  oil  has  been  and  is  being  used  on 
vessels  sailing  from  San  Francisco  and  other  Pacific  Coast  ports,  but 
little  definite  data  are  available  as  to  relative  economies.  The  eco- 
nomic advantage  in  using  oil  for  fuel,  at  present  prices,  is  so  manifest 
that  those  who  have  looked  into  the  matter  have  usually  adopted  oil 
without  much  experiment,  while  those  by  whom  it  is  used  are  usually 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


117 


satisfied  to  find  their  fuel  Itills  decreased  fifty  per  cent  or  more,  without 
earing  to  inijuire  into  tlie  details. 

Government  Boiler  Tests. — The  most,  one  might  almost  say  the 
only,  eomprehensive  tests  whieh  have  heen  made  with  liquid  fuel  in 
direct  comparison  with  coal  were  undertaken  in  1902  hj'  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering  of  the  United  States  Navy.  These  tests  are  still 
nnder  way,  l)ut  a  rei)ort  lias  lieen  issued  describing  the  results  obtained 
from  the  first  trials,  thirty-one  in  number.^  The  tests  were  made  with 
the  Hohenstein  water-tube  boiler,  in  a  special  experimental  plant  so 
constructed  as  to  imitate,  on  land,  the  conditions  met  in  the  fire-room 
of  a  war  vessel.  For  the  details  of  these  tests,  which  will  amply  repay 
the  closest  examination,  reference  must  be  had  to  the  original  report,  as 
the  figures  are  far  too  voluminous  to  reproduce  in  full.  But  the  main 
points  l)rought  out  in  the  course  of  the  trials  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  tables,  summarized  from  the  various  tables  in  the  report. 

The  coals  used  were  Pocahontas  and  New  River,  rated  among  the 
best  of  American  bituminous  coals,  and  having  the  following  analyses  : 


Pocahontas 

Coal, 
Run  of  Mine. 


Pocahontas 

Coal, 
Run  of  Mine. 


Pocahontas 

Coal, 
Hand  Picked 
Run  of  Mine,    and  Screened. 


Xew    River 
Coal, 


Proximate  Analysis. 

Fixed  carbon 

\'olatile  matter 

.Mui^^mre 

Ash 

Sulphur,  seiiarately  determined 

Ultimate  Analysis. 

I  'arbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Sulplmr 

Ash 

Calorific    Value   (B.  T.  U.) 
per  Pound. 

Coal  

Combustible 


14,992 
15,475 


•  "  Report  of  the  'Hohenstein  Boiler'  and  'Liquid  Fuel'  Boards,"  of  the  Engineer- 
ng  Department,  U.  S.  Navy,  um. 


118 


I'KTKOLKKM     IN    CALIKOKNIA. 


MIC^ 


Drah- Gauge  Conmctiom 
Mica  Windows 

Fig.  39.     Hohenstein   Expfriiiifiital   Boiler,  arranged  for  Oil. 

(Reproducefi  from  Ki'iiort  of  tlic  Liiiuid  Fml  Hoiud,  U.  S.  N.) 

The  oil  used  was  a  reduced  oil   from   Beaumont,  Texas,  having  the 
following  analysis: 

Proximate  Analysis. 


First  ten  per  c«'iit  passed  over 
Second  ten  per  cent  passed  over 

Third  ten  per  cent  passed  over 

Fourth  ten  per  cent  jiassed  over     ,   . 
Distillation  at  atmospheric  pressure. 


-Between  212°  and  482°  V. 
..Between  482°  and  523°  F. 
.-Between  523°  and  5.52°  F. 

-Between  ,552°  and  680°  F. 


IJQriD    FUEL    ON    STKAMSHIl'?- 


11V> 


il  iWiiWW"'*-^ 


Fig.  40.     Hohenstein  Expei'inieiital  Boiler,  arranged  for  Coal. 
(Reproduced  from  Report  of  the  Lii|uid  Fuel  Board,  U.  S.  X.) 


Ultimate  Analysis. 


Carbon  

Hydrogen . 
Sulphur... 
Oxygen 


Physical  Properties. 

Specific  gravity  at  <!U°  F. 

(Equal  to  degree^;  Beauni6) 

Flash  point 

Fire  point 

Vaporization  point. 

Loss  for  six  hours  at  212°  F. 

Calorific  value,  calculated  from  Dulong's  fornuila. 


83.26% 
12.41% 
0.50% 
3.83% 

100.00" 


0.92i> 

_ 21.2° 

. .  216°  F. 

-.  240°  F. 

..  142°  F. 

21.65% 

19,481  B.  T.  V. 


120 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Fig.  39  herewith  shows  general  arrangement  of  boiler  and  setting 
for  use  with  oil;  Fig.  40,  the  same  as  used  with  coal;  and  Fig.  41,  the 
arrangement  of  hoih'r-rooni  and  connections  during  oil  tests. 


LIQUID    FIEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 
TABLE  16.     HOHENSTEIN  WATER-TUBE  BOILER. 


121 


Coal  Tests. 


Oil  Tests. 


Fuel  used,  total -. lbs. 

<  'alorific  value,  average B.  T.  U. 

Theoretical  evaporative  power  per  pound  of  fuel,  from  and  at 
212°  F. /^N. 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212°  F.,  total lbs. 

Evaporation  per  pound  of  fuel  as  fired,  gross — 

Maximum /&.•!. 

Minimum lbs. 

Average Ib.^. 

Steam   used  in  injecting,  or   in  compressing  air  for  injection, 
average % 


166,778 
12,iKi5 

1:^.42 
1,528,260 


10.20 
8.22 
9.16 


.lbs. 


Net  available  evaporation  per  pound  of  fuel,  average  . 

Pounds  of  steam  used  in  spraying  oil,  per  pound  of  oil,  using 
steam  only — 

ilaximum lbs. 

Minimum lbs. 

Average lbs. 

Efficiency:  percentage  of  theoretical  lieating  value  realized  in 
actual  evaporation,  net — 

Natural-draft  trials — Maximum % 

Minimum % 

Average % 

Forced-draft   trials — Maximum % 

Minimum % 

Average % 

Number  of  trials  using  forced  draft 

Number  of  trials  using  natural  draft 

Average  fire-room  pressure  during  forced-draft  trials,  in  inches 
of  water 

Evaporation  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface,  net — 

Natural-draft  trials — Maximum lbs. 

M  inimum lbs. 

Average lbs. 

Forced-draft    trials — Maximum lbs. 

Minimum lbs. 

Average lbs. 


0.00 
9.16 


68.3 
60.0 
64.4 
65.6 
.54.0 
59.5 

11 


1.5 


199,770 
19,481 

20.17 
2,714,420 


14.4:i 
10.77 
13.59 


3.02 
13.18 


0.701 
0.464 
0.568 


70.7 
60.9 
65.6 
61.3 
51.1 
56.7 

4 
10 


2.4 


5.40 

9.45 

4.38 

3.91 

4.82 

6.36 

4.15 

16.7(1 

6.26 

10.50 

9.61 

14.00 

Fuels  Used. — The  coal  used  in  these  tests  was  of  a  much  higher  grade 
than  any  of  the  Pacific  Coast  coals,  which  will  not  average  more  than 
10,500  to  11,000  B.  T.  U.  per  pound  as  fired.  This  makes  the  figures  for 
evaporation  with  coal  higher  than  they  would  be  with  local  coals,  both 
because  of  the  higher  evaporative  power  directly,  and  also  because,  in 
general,  the  better  the  coal  used  the  higher  will  be  the  percentage  of  effi- 
ciency. On  the  other  hand,  the  Beaumont  oil  used  in  the  oil  tests  could 
hardly  have  been  of  better  quality  than  the  average  California  crude, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  higher  rate  of  evaporation 
was  secured  than  would  have  been  had,  under  the  same  conditions,  with 
local  oil.     The  evaporation  obtained  with  oil  is,  in  fact,  notably  lower 


122  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

than  has  been  had  in  California,  in  very  carefully  conducted  tests,  and 
under  the  same  conditions,  so  far  as  efficiency  of  apparatus  is  concerned. 

Steam  in  Burners.— Only  a  few  of  the  trials  used  steam  alone  in  the 
burners,  some  using  air  alone,  others  both  air  and  steam.  In  the  trials 
which  used  steam  alone,  the  burners  were  of  very  simple  construction, 
in  two  tests  being  practically  a  pipe  burner,  in  three  tests  of  the  type 
shown  in  Fig.  23.  The  steam  used,  ranging  from  0.701  lb.  to  0.464  lb. 
per  pound  of  oil  used,  would  equal,  at  the  average  evaporation  for  these 
tests  of  13.5  pounds,  5.12%  to  3.4%  of  the  total  evaporation,  the  average 
being  4.2%.  The  lower  percentage  shown  in  the  table  above,  in  the  line 
■'  Steam  used  in  injecting,"  is  due  to  this  average  covering  also  the  tests 
using  air  in  the  burners,  it  being  well  known  that  air  burners  use  less 
steam  in  the  compressor  than  steam  burners  consume  direct.  As  this 
average  of  4.2%  is  somewhat  larger  than  is  customarily  estimated  in 
Pacific  Coast  practice,  either  the  tests  were  wasteful  of  steam,  or  else  the 
prevailing  figures  on  the  coast  are  wrong;  probably  the  latter,  as  the 
greatest  precautions  were  taken  by  the  board  to  secure  an  accurate 
account  of  the  steam  used  by  burners,  which  were  handled  by  skilled 
firemen  and  were  of  approved  form. 

Efficiency. — The  efliciency  during  natural  draft  trials  is  notably  low, 
being  only  slightly  greater  than  realized  with  coal.  A  great  number  of 
tests  made  in  California,  by  careful  engineers,  gave  given  efficiencies 
with  oil  fuel  of  75%  to  80%,  with  evaporation  of  4^  pounds  per  hour  per 
square  foot,  or  better,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  service.  The  effi- 
ciencies obtained  with  coal  in  these  tests  being  good,  it  is  probable  that 
the  low  efficiency  figures  in  the  oil  tests  are  due  to  over-estimation  of 
the  calorific  value  of  the  oil,  this  being  calculated  from  the  ultimate 
analysis  by  Dulong's  formula.  A  number  of  comparative  determina- 
tions made  on  California  oil  would  indicate  that  the  calorific  value 
calculated  from  analysis  in  this  manner  is  higher  than  the  value  found 
by  combustion,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  theoretical  evaporative  power 
stated  for  the  Beaumont  oil  used  is  too  high  by  5%;  if  this  is  the  fact 
the  efficiencies  as  stated  would  average  about  3%  too  low,  though  even 
if  corrected  by  this  amount  they  would  still  be  considered  low  in 
California. 

As  would  be  expected,  the  efficiencies  found  on  forced  draft  trials  are 
somewhat  low'er  than  in  the  coal  tests.  It  does  not  appear  that  oil  is 
very  suital)le  to  use  under  forced  draft  conditions,  though  it  may  be 
that  further  experiment  as  to  firebox  and  baffling  arrangements  will 
make  it  more  adaptable.  The  board  found  in  the  tests  above  that 
they  could  not  evaporate  more  than  thirteen  pounds  of  water  per  hour 
per  square  foot  of  heating  surface,  without  forming  a  great  deal  of 
smoke  and  greatly  lowering  the  efficiencies.      As  to  this,  much  would 


Ligiii)  ki;ki-  on  stkamshii's.  123 

depeiul  on  the  form  of  tlie  tirebox,  and  })rol)al»ly  also  on  the  atomizing 
efficiency  of  the  burners. 

Capacity. — The  evaporation  i)er  hour  i)er  siiuare  foot  of  heating  sur- 
face (/.  e.,  the  capacity)  is  considerably  liiglier  on  the  oil  trials  than 
when  using  coal.  This  agrees  with  the  results  of  numerous  trials  in 
this  State,  which  show  tliat  a  good  water-tube  boiler  using  oil  fuel  can 
be  forced,  under  natural  draft,  from  (50%  to  75%  above  rated  capacity, 
without  lowering  the  cfiiciency  below  75%. 

Conclusions  of  the  Board. — The  general  conclusions  drawn  by  the 
Engineers  of  the  Board  from  the  data  collected  are  sunnned  up  as  fol- 
lows: "It  is  believed  that  expert  engineers  will  be  able  to  make 
"  imj)ortant  deductions  from  the  trustworthy  data  that  have  been  so 
"carefully  collected.  The  table  should  be  carefully  studied  in  connec- 
"  tion  with  the  information  secured  during  the  coal  tests,  and  the  lioard 
*' enjoins  that  the  two  reports  be  studied  together. 

"The  following  information  has  undoubtedly  been  secured: 

"  [a]   That  oil  can  be  burned  in  a  very  uniform  manner. 

"  (h)  That  the  evaporative  efficiency  of  nearly  every  kind  of  oil  per 
"  pound  of  condjustible  is  probably  the  same.  While  the  crude  oil  may 
"be  rich  in  hydrocarbons,  it  also  contains  sulphur,  so  that,  after  refin- 
"  ing,  the  distilled  oil  has  ])ro))ably  the  same  calorific  value  as  the  crude 
"product. 

"  (c)  That  a  marine  steam  generator  can  be  forced  to  even  as  high  a 
"  degree  with  oil  as  with  coal. 

"  {(])  That  up  to  the  present  time  no  ill  effects  have  been  shown  upon 
"  the  boiler. 

"  (e)  That  the  firemen  are  disposed  to  favor  oil,  and  therefore  no 
"impediment  will  be  met  in  this  respect. 

"  {/)  That  the  air  requisite  for  condiustion  should  be  heated  if  possi- 
"  ble  before  entering  the  furnace.  Such  action  undoubtedly  assists  the 
"  gasification  of  the  oil  product. 

"  (g)  That  the  oil  should  be  heated  so  that  it  could  be  atomized  more 
"  readily. 

"(/()  That  when  using  steam  higher  pressures  are  undoul)t(M]ly  more 
'"advantageous  than  lower  pressures  for  atonuzing  the  oil. 

"  (i)  That  under  heavy  forced  draft  conditions,  and  particularly 
"  when  steam  is  used,  the  board  has  not  yet  found  it  possible  to  prevent 
"  smoke  from  issuing  from  the  stack,  although  all  connected  with  the 
"  tests  made  special  efforts  to  secure  complete  cond)ustion.  Particularly 
"  for  naval  purposes  it  is  desirable  that  the  smoke  nuisance  be  eradi- 
"  cated  in  order  that  the  presence  of  a  warship  might  not  be  detected 
"  from  this  cause.  As  there  has  been  a  tendency  of  late  years  to  force 
''the  boilers   of  industrial  plants,  the  inaliility  to   ])revent  the   smoke 


124  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"nuisance  under  forced  draft  conditions  may  have  an  important  inHn- 
"  ence  ui)on  the  increased  use  of  li(iuid  fuel. 

"  (_/)  Tliat  the  consumption  of  licjuid  fuel  can  not  probably  be  forced 
"to  as  great  an  extent  with  steam  as  the  atomizing  agent  as  when  com- 
"  pressed  air  is  used  for  this  purpose.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
"  that  the  air  used  for  atomizing  purposes,  after  entering  the  furnace, 
"  supplies  oxygen  for  the  combustible,  while  in  the  case  of  steam  the 
"  rarified  vapor  simply  displaces  air  that  is  needed  to  complete  combus- 
"tion. 

"  {k)  That  the  efficiency  of  oil-fuel  plants  will  be  greatly  dependent 
"  on  the  general  character  of  the  installation  of  auxiliaries  and  fittings, 
"  and  therefore  the  work  should  only  be  entrusted  to  those  who  have 
"  given  careful  study  to  the  matter,  and  who  have  had  extended  expe- 
"  rience  in  burning  the  crude  product.  The  form  of  the  burner  will 
"  play  a  very  small  part  in  increasing  the  use  of  crude  petroleum.  The 
"  method  and  character  of  the  installation  will  count  for  much,  but  where 
"  burners  are  simple  indesign  and  are  constructed  in  accordance  with 
"  scientific  principles  there  will  be  very  little  difference  in  their  effi- 
"  ciency.  Consumers  should  principally  look  out  that  they  do  not 
"  purchase  appliances  that  have  been  untried  and  have  been  designed 
"  by  persons  who  have  had  l)ut  limited  experience  in  operating  oil 
"  devices." 

Steamer  "  Mariposa." — One  of  the  first  deep-sea  vessels  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  to  l)e  fitted  for  oil  was  the  Oceanic  Steamship  Company's  "Mari- 
posa," running  from  San  Francisco  to  Tahiti.  Through  the  courtesy  of 
the  Steamship  Company,  the  Navy  Department  was  permitted  to  send 
out  a  representative  on  the  "  Mariposa "  on  her  first  trip  after  being 
fitted  with  oil-burning  apparatus.  The  following'  is  a  description  of  the 
steamer  "  Mariposa,"  of  the  Oceanic  Steamship  Company,  as  fitted  for 
oil  fuel  burning,  with  an  account  of  the  preliminary  trial  trips  of  the 
vessel  as  witnessed  by  Commander  H.  N.  Stevenson,  United  States 
Nav}'^;  also  the  report  of  Lieut.  Ward  P.  Winchell,  U.  S.  Navy,  who 
officially  represented  the  Department  on  the  round  trip  of  the  steamer 
between  San  Francisco  and  Tahiti : 

The  "  Mariposa  "  is  a  single-screw  iron  steamer,  built  at  the  yard  of 
William  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1883.  She  has  just  hail 
new  engines  and  boilers  installed  by  the  Risdon  Iron  Works,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.  The  oil-burning  plant  has  just  been  installed  by  the  same 
company.     (July,  1902.) 

This  vessel  has  been  employed  in  the  Pacific  trade,  and  is  now  run- 
ning to  Tahiti  from  San  Francisco,  making  the  round-trij)  voyage  of 
7320  knots  each  month. 

1  Quoted  from  "  Report  of  the  Liquid  Fuel  Board." 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  125 

Description  of  the  "Mariposa." 

(ii'oss  tiinnagi" ;-il()(( 

[jengtli  between  perpen(Ucular;s _     'MA      feet 

Beam 41      feet 

Mean  draft 22      feet 

Depth  of  hold IT^^j  feet 

There  is  a  sin<>le  bottom  with  four  watcr-titiht  athwartsliip  hulklicads, 
and  two  masts,  s(|Uare  ritrjicd  on  the  foremast. 

The  total  crew  was  81,  but  since  the  cliange  from  coal  to  oil  l)urning 
16  men  have  been  taken  out  of  the  engineer's  force,  reducing  the  crew 
to  65  men,  and  making  the  engineer's  force  for  oil  burning  20  men,  as 
follows:  1  chief  engineer,  3  assistant  engineers,  3  oilers,  1  electrician, 
1  attendant  for  ice  machine,  1  attendant  for  air-compressor,  3  water- 
tenders,  6  firemen,  1  storekeeper. 

The  Engines  and  Boilers. — There  is  one  triple-expansion  engine  of  the 
inverted  direct-acting  type,  with  cylinders  29",  47",  and  78",  by  51" 
stroke,  designed  for  2500  indicated  horsepower,  fitted  with  piston  valves 
on  the  high-pressure  and  intermediate-pressure,  and  slide  valve  on  the 
low-pressure  cylinders,  all  draw'n  by  link  motion.  The  condenser  is 
part  of  the  back  framing.     The  cylinders  are  not  jacketed. 

The  air,  feed,  and  bilge  pumps,  of  which  there  are  two  sets,  are  driven 
from  the  forward  and  after  cross-lieads.  The  centrifugal  circulating 
pump  is  driven  by  a  separate  engine.  The  four-bladed  propeller  is 
16'  6"  diameter,  and  has  a  pitch  of  23'. 

There  are  three  cylindrical  tank  boilers,  placed  fore  and  aft  in  the 
line  of  the  shi])  —two  are  double-ended,  15'  3"  diameter  by  15'  3"  long, 
and  one  single-ended,  14'  diameter  l)y  9'  9"  long,  the  latter  placed  amid- 
ships, forward  of  and  worked  from  the  forward  fire-room.  Each  double- 
ended  boiler  has  six  corrugated  furnaces;  the  double-ended  boilers  have 
a  common  combustion  chamber  for  opposite  furnaces,  while  the  single- 
ended  one  has  a  common  combustion  chaml)er  for  its  three  furnaces. 
There  is  one  smokestack  for  all  the  boilers.  The  combustion  chambers 
of  the  double-ended  boilers  have  a  brick  wall,  and  the  back  sheet  of  the 
single-ended  one  is  covered  with  fire-brick.  The  decision  to  use  oil 
in  place  of  coal  was  not  made  until  the  changes  in  engines  and  boilers 
were  well  under  way,  and  it  was  decided  to  put  the  ship  on  the  route  to 
Tahiti.  The  steam  pressure  is  180  pounds.  There  is  one  auxiliary 
boiler,  two-furnace  return  tube  type,  in  upper  fire-room  hatch,  and 
fitted  to  burn  coal  only. 

The  Oil  Tanks.  -  These  were  constructed  out  of  the  old  coal-bunker 
space,  forward  of  the  boilers,  and  as  the  steamer  is  intended  to  carry 
oil  for  the  round  trip  of  aliout  7320  miles,  some  additional  space  had  to 
be  taken  from  the  fore-hold.  They  are  arranged  as  follows:  Just  for- 
ward of  the  boiler  space  a  solid  water-tight  bulkhead,  well  ])raced,  was 


12fi  PETHOLKl'M    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

built  from  the  berth  deck  to  the  single  bottom  of  the  ship,  extending  to 
the  single  skin  of  the  shi]),  from  side  to  side;  four  feet,  or  two  frame 
spaces,  forward  of  this,  was  also  built  another  similar  solid  bulkhead, 
which  formed  the  after  ends  of  the  oil  tanks;  forty-eight  feet  farther 
forward  another  similar  solid  l)ulkhead  was  built  to  form  the  forward 
heads  of  the  oil  tanks,  and  four  feet  forward  of  this  another  solid  bulk- 
head. The  spaces  of  four  feet  at  each  end  of  the  tanks  being  a  coffer- 
dam space  to  catcli  any  oil  from  leakage  or  accident,  these  cofferdam 
spaces  can  be  filled  with  water  if  necessary.  The  tank  space  is  divided 
into  six  tanks  by  a  middle  Inilkhead  and  two  side  partitions.  Splash 
plates  to  break  the  impact  of  rolling  are  placed  in  each  tank,  a  small 
opening  at  the  to})  allowing  any  accumulation  of  gas  to  pass  off  to  the 
ventilating  trunk.  Small  o])enings  at  the  bottom  allow  free  com- 
munication for  the  oil.  Along  the  top  of  the  tanks  is  provided  an 
expansion  head  or  trunk,  being  4^'  high  and  4V  wide.  Over  each  a 
ventilating  trunk  connecting  with  the  top  of  each  tank  extends  up  to 
about  five  feet  above  the  hurricane  deck.  The  cofferdam  spaces  are 
ventilated  by  tubes  reaching  to  the  upper  deck,  fitted  with  cowls,  one 
tube  reaching  to  near  the  bottom  to  carry  out  any  heavy  gas  that 
might  accumulate  there.  From  the  upper  deck  the  sounding  pipes  to 
each  tank  are  reached.  There  are  no  pipes  in  or  through  the  tanks 
except  those  connected  with  the  oil  service.  The  total  capacity  of  the 
tanks,  exclusive  of  expansion  trunk,  is  6338  barrels  of  oil — about  905.43 
tons.     One  barrel  of  oil  equals  42  gallons. 

To  fill  the  tanks,  on  the  port  side  outside  the  ship  a  6"  connection  is 
fitted;  from  this  a  pipe  leads  to  the  forward  fire-room,  where  the  tank 
oil  pump  is  placed.  This  pump,  horizontal  duplex,  steam  cylinders  9", 
oil  cylinders  8^",  stroke  10",  can  be  used  to  draw  its  supply  from  the 
pipe  and  deliver  into  each  of  the  tanks,  or  by  using  by-passes,  which  are 
provided,  the  oil  barge  alongside  can  fill  all  the  tanks;  an  overflow  pipe 
from  each  tank,  carried  at  height  of  deck  above  them,  leads  to  an  over~ 
flow  outside  the  ship  near  the  supply  hose  coupling. 

There  are  two  service  or  settling  tanks,  placed  in  pockets  formed  on 
either  side  of  the  single-ended  boiler.  They  are  reached  by  doors  from 
the  forward  fire-room;  each  of  these  tanks  holds  about  twelve  hours' 
sui)])ly.  They  are  filled  by  the  oil  tank  pump,  and  have  overflows 
back  to  the  main  tanks;  ventilating  tubes  lead  from  near  the  l)ottom  of 
the  pockets  in  which  they  are  placed  to  the  smokestack. 

Each  service  tank  is  provided  with  glass  gauges,  by  means  of  which 
the  an)ount  used  every  hour  or  watch  can  be  easily  measured. 

Each  settling  tank  has  two  suction  pipes,  one  at  bottom  to  draw  off 
water  if  necessary,  the  other  at  a  height  of  about  two  feet  for  the  oil 
supj)ly  to  the  service  pumps.  All  the  tanks  are  provided  with  man- 
holes to  reach  the  interior. 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  127 

The  Oil  Service  Pumps. — The  oil  service  punij^s,  of  whicli  there  are  two, 
liorizontal  duplex,  steam  cylinders  6",  oil  cylinders  4",  and  stroke  of 
6",  one  being  large  enough  to  supply  all  the  burners,  are  placed  in  the 
forward  fire-room  on  either  side.  They  draw  their  supply  from  the 
settling  or  receiving  tank  through  removable  strainers,  jjlaced  so  that 
they  can  be  easily  changed  for  cleaning,  and  discharge  into  the  bottom 
of  the  small  heating  tank  near  them,  where  the  oil  is  heated  by  a 
steam  coil  to  not  more  than  150°  F.,  and  thence  by  a  pipe  to  the  burn- 
ers. The  air  from  the  compressors,  under  a  pressure  limited  to  40 
pounds,  discharges  into  the  top  of  the  heater  tank  on  its  way  to  the 
burners,  so  that  the  oil  and  the  air  go  to  the  burners  under  the  same 
pressure.  The  heater  tank  is  provided  with  glass  gauges,  also  a  float 
to  work  a  telltale  and  automatic  control  of  oil  supply  pump. 

The  Air-Compressor. — The  air-compressor  is  placed  in  a  pocket  off  the 
upper  engine-room  platform,  and  consists  of  duplicate  steam  and  air 
cylinders,  connected  to  a  crank  shaft  carrying  a  flywheel  turning 
between  the  cylinders.  Either  set  is  large  enough  to  supply  all  the  air 
necessary.  The  air-compressor  is  horizontal,  double  acting,  duplex. 
Air  cylinders  22",  steam  cylinders  12",  diameter,  by  18"  stroke  for  all 
cylinders.  Capacity  equals  1000  cubic  feet  of  free  air  per  minute,  com- 
pressed up  to  30  pounds,  and  120  revolutions  per  minute.  Air  is  used 
at  the  heat  of  compression,  or  as  heated  by  the  air  heater. 

The  Atomizer. — The  atomizer,  for  which  patents  are  pending,  is  the 
joint  invention  of  Messrs.  Grundell  and  Tucker,  San  Francisco. 

The  atomizer  consists  of  a  hollow  plunger  for  the  oil,  screwed  into  a 
pipe  through  which  the  air  passes.  The  outlet  for  the  oil  is  through 
a  series  of  small  holes,  at  right  angles  to  the  central  hole.  The  air 
meets  the  oil  through  spiral  directors  and  is  sprayed  into  a  rose  shape 
by  the  expanded  end  of  the  atomizer. 

The  air  and  oil  pipes  have  glol)e  valves  to  regulate  the  supply  of 
either,  also  plug  cocks  connected  together  to  a  handle,  by  means  of 
which  each  burner  can  be  shut  off  innnediately  in  case  of  necessity,  a 
slow-down  bell,  or  other  cause.  The  air-supply  pipe  is  also  connected 
with  the  steam  line,  so  that  steam  can  be  quickly  substituted  for  air  if 
desired. 

The  length  of  the  oil  plunger  is  adjustable,  to  give  the  best  form  to 
the  rose-shaped  flame.     Two  burners  are  fitted  to  each  furnace. 

The  Air  Heater. — A  part  of  each  furnace  front  is  a  hollow  iron  cast- 
ing, through  which  the  air  passes  on  its  way  to  the  atomizers  and 
becomes  heated.  The  chamber  surrounding  the  burner  is  lined  with  a 
crucible  lead  lining;  a  by-pass  to  the  burners  is  provided  for  use  in  case 
of  accident  to  the  heater.  The  lower  part  of  the  furnace  front  is  a;  door 
on  hinges  that  can  be  fastened  open  at  any  desired  degree  to  give  air 

9— BUL.  32 


128  PETROLEUM    IX    CALIFORNIA. 

for  combustion.  Then;  are  also  two  louvres  iu  the  door  for  the  same 
purpose.  Near  the  front  of  the  furnace  inside  the  door  is  placed  a 
brick  wall  made  to  dellect  upward  the  inward  current  of  air  to  meet  the 
rose-shaped  Hame  from  the  burners.  There  is  ample  space  over  the 
brick  wall  for  a  man  to  enter  the  furnace  through  the  ashpit  door. 
The  double  furnace  condnistion  chambers  have  a  brick  bridge  wall 
reaching  above  the  top  of  the  furnaces,  and  in  the  single-ended  l>oiler 
the  common  combustion  chamber  has  the  back  sheet  covered  with  fire- 
l)rick  to  protect  it. 

The  Trial  Trips. — Two  trial  trips  with  the  vessel  under  way  were  made 
on  July  5  and  11,  the  vessel  being  under  way  about  eight  hours  each 
day,  running  from  the  vessel's  dock  to  the  Farallon  Islands  and 
return,  and  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  the  oil 
apparatus,  the  new  engines  and  boilers,  were  in  good  working  condition. 
On  the  first  run  the  boilers  primed  badly,  owing  to  the  construction 
dirt  not  having  been  thoroughly  cleaned  out.  Before  the  second  run 
they  were  cleaned,  and  worked  well  on  this  run. 

The  strainers  on  the  oil-supply  pipes  were  not  tinished  and  consider- 
able trouble  was  found  with  dirty  oil  which  clogged  the  burners. 
Neither  the  telltale  to  show  the  height  of  oil  in  the  heated  tank,  nor  the 
controlling  device  for  the  oil  service  pump  were  fitted,  not  being  finished 
in  time  for  use.  No  attempt  was  made  to  measure  the  amount  of  oil 
burned,  nor  to  attain  the  maximum  speed,  and  it  was  therefore  impos- 
sible to  obtain  any  data  other  than  observation  of  the  working  of  the 
oil  apparatus. 

Very  few  of  the  fire-room  force  had  ever  had  any  experience  with  oil 
burners  on  steamers,  and  one  object  of  the  trials  was  to  give  the  force 
practical  experience.  When  properly  regulated  the  burners  gave  no 
smoke,  but  that  they  were  not  properly  regulated  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  more  or  less  smoke  was  visible  most  of  the  time,  and  at  times  dense 
black.  Owing  to  lack  of  the  telltale  and  regulating  device  of  the  small 
heating  tank  the  pump-tender  once  allowed  this  tank  to  fill  up  and  the 
oil  to  flow  over  into  the  air  pipe  and  flood  the  burners.  As  soon  as  this 
was  discovered  every  burner  was  immediately  cut  off  by  means  of  the 
lever  connecting  to  the  plug  cocks  on  the  oil  and  air  supply  pipes  at 
the  burners. 

The  atomizer  tubes  were  unscrewed  and  on  some  of  them,  where  the 
oil  had  caked,  considerable  force  had  to  be  applied  to  pull  them  out. 
New,  clean  atomizers  were  screwed  in,  and  as  soon  as  the  oil  heater 
tank  could  be  brought  to  the  proper  oil  level  the  burners  were  started 
again.  Some  steam  pressure  was  lost  during  this  delay,  but  the  engines 
did  not  stop  nor  slow  down  very  much;  some  of  the  burners  were  started 
in  a  few  minutes  and  all  of  them  in  not  over  fifteen  minutes.  The 
value  of  being  able  to  shut  off  the  air  quickly  and  clean  or  substitute 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  129 

other  atomizers  was  sliowii  l>y  this  mishap.  The  l)urncrs  made  consid- 
erable roaring-  noise,  and  the  air  pressure  was,  in  order  to  clean  the 
hurners  of  dirt,  carried  to  ahout  tlie  intended  pressure,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  strainers  which  allowed  dirty  oil  to  choke  them,  and  they  had  to  be 
taken  out  frequently  for  cleaning.  Ry  sliutting  off  with  the  level-  the 
regulating  valves  were  left  in  adjustment  for  starting  again,  provided  it 
was  right  before.  The  new  fire  is  started  by  a  torch  inserted  into  the  plug 
hole  around  the  burner. 

On  the  second  run  the  strainers  and  the  regulating  device  for  the 
heater  tank  had  been  completed.  The  oil  apparatus  was  handled  with 
greater  ease  and  uniformity,  and  the  less  amount  of  smoke  was  very 
noticeable.  For  intervals  of  an  hour  or  more  scarcely  any  or  none 
would  be  observed.  On  the  run  in  from  the  Farallones  the  engine  was 
speeded  up  to  74  to  77  turns,  and  an  average  speed  of  14-5  knots  was 
obtained.  The  steam  pressure  was  uniformly  maintained  at  the  point 
desired  without  difliculty,  and  the  oil-l)urning  apparatus  gave  no  trouble 
whatever. 

The  oil  used  on  both  runs  was  from  the  Kern  River  district,  near 
Bakersfield,  Cal. 

The  following  data  were  observed: 

Steam  pressure . 160  to  170  lbs. 

Revolutions  of  engine 74  to    77 

Revoliitions  of  air-compressor 60 

Pressure  of  air 20  lbs. 

Temperature  of  oil  entering  heater ,30°  F. 

Temperature  of  oil  leaving  heater 120°-130°  F. 

Temperature  at  base  of  stack 750°  F. 

It  is  regretted  that  the  nature  of  the  trials  did  not  permit  of  obtain- 
ing a  greater  amount  of  data  beyond  observing  the  apparatus  in  use. 

The  chemist  of  the  New  York  yard  submitted  the  following  report 
upon  the  sample  of  the  Kern  River  district  oil  sent  him  for  analysis: 

The  sample  is  practically  free  from  low-boiling  naphtha,  as  on  distil- 
lation only  a  small  percentage  passed  over  below  150*^  C,  and  less  than 
10%  below  225°  C.  A  boiling  point  above  360°  C.  was  reached  before 
the  second  10%  was  collected. 

It  shows  on  ultimate  analysis  the  following  composition: 

Carbon 84.43% 

Hydrogen 10.99 

Oxygen 3.34 

Nitrogen ,..     0.65 

Sulphur 0.59 

This  gives  a  calorific  value,  by  Dulong's  formula,  of  18,806  B.  T.  U.  The 
specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is  0.962  (15.5°  Be.).  Flash  point,  228°  F. 
Fire  point,  258°  F.  Vaporization  point,  178°  F.  Loss  for  six  hours  at 
212°  F.,  12.01%. 


130  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

REPORT  OF  LIEUT.  WARD  WINCHELL  ON  THE  VOYAGE  OF  THE  "  MARIPOSA." 

U.  S.  Steamer  "  Boston," 

At  Sea,  August  15,  1902. 

Sir:  In  accordance  with  the  Department's  telegraphic  order  of  July  7, 
1902,  delivered  July  8,  1902,  and  the  instructions  from  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering,  dated  July  7,  delivered  a  few  minutes  before  sail- 
ing, I  took  passage  on  the  Oceanic  Steamship  Company's  steamer  '"  Mari- 
posa," leaving  San  Francisco  at  10  a.  m.  July  15,  1902,  for  the  round 
trip  to  Tahiti. 

In  accordance  with  the  instructions  of  the  Bureau,  I  took  two  sets  of 
indicator  cards  each  day,  making  forty-five  sets  in  all,  the  data  of  which 
were  worked  .up. 

There  have  been  no  tests  to  determine  the  evaporative  efficiency  of 
the  two  main  double-ended  boilers  used  on  the  run,  and  I  regret  to 
report  that  the  chief  engineer  of  the  ship  w^as  unable  to  improvise  any 
apparatus  by  which  the  amount  of  feed  water  could  be  determined  with 
accuracy  enough  to  give  the  data  any  value. 

The  amount  of  oil  is  a  matter  of  much  importance,  since  the  tanks 
hold  barely  enough  to  make  the  round  trip  and  but  one  day's  supply  of 
coal  is  aboard.  The  oil  was  measured  first  by  the  amount  pumped  into 
the  two  settling  tanks,  as  shown  in  inches  on  the  scale  back  of  the  gauge 
glasses  on  the  tanks;  second,  this  amount  was  checked  by  the  number 
of  inches  used  out  of  each  tank  for  each  watch;  third,  another  check, 
and  the  one  considered  most  accurate,  as  dealing  with  large  quantities 
and  small  errors,  was  by  sounding  the  tanks  from  time  to  time  and 
comparing  the  amounts  taken  out  with  the  expenditures  in  the  log.  The 
latter  method  gave  a  correction  which  was  applied  to  the  daily  log, 
increasing  the  daily  expenditure  slightly,  as  summed  up  by  inches  in 
the  settling  tank. 

The  most  careful  inspection  at  Tahiti  failed  to  show^  any  bad  effect  of 
the  flame  upon  the  boilers.  No  leaks  nor  defects  developed  anywhere 
about  them  and  there  was  no  difficulty  at  any  time  in  feeding  them. 
As  I  was  ordered  to  the  "  Boston  "  immediately  on  my  arrival  at  San 
Francisco  I  lost  the  oi)portunity  of  again  inspecting  the  boilers,  but  no 
defects  showed  from  the  outside.  At  Tahiti  the  tubes  were  swept  by 
tube-scrapers,  and  back  connections,  uptakes,  ashpans,  and  furnaces 
were  cleaned.  All  refuse  from  these  various  places  barely  filled  two 
ash  buckets. 

This  refuse,  mainly  soot,  was  the  result  not  only  of  the  twelve  days' 
run  to  Tahiti,  but  also  of  the  three  preliminary  trials  by  the  con- 
tractors. The  first  one,  a  four-hour  trial  of  engines  and  boilers,  was 
made  with  Comax  coal,  and  the  other  two  were  free  runs  at  sea,  of 
about  eight  hours'  duration  each,  burning  oil.     The  tubes  had  never 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  131 

been  cleaned  previous  to  arrival  at  Tahiti.  It  is  the  intention  here- 
after to  make  the  round  trip  of  twenty-four  days'  steaming  without 
sweeping  tubes. 

There  are  no  precautions  other  than  those  usually  taken  on  board 
ship  to  guard  against  tire  or  explosion.  All  spaces  to  which  oil  has 
access  are  well  ventilated  by  both  inlet  and  outlet  ducts.  The  oil  is  a 
thick,  dark  liquid,  like  molasses,  and  in  the  open  air  burns  slowly,  giv- 
ing off  nuich  smoke.  But  it  gives  off  volatile  gases  which  form  explo- 
sive mixtures  with  air,  tanks  empty  or  nearly  so  being  more  dangerous 
than  full  ones  in  this  respect.  The  ship  is  electrically  lighted,  but  in 
addition  an  open  hand  lamp  is  burning  in  the  fire-room  all  the  time  to 
light  the  burners;  the  firemen  smoke  on  watch,  and  the  oil  is  treated 
no  more  tenderly  than  if  it  were  coal.  On  the  run  back,  the  cargo  of 
copra  was  stored  all  about  the  expansion  trunk,  which  projects  up  4^ 
feet  between  decks,  completely  covering  the  tanks  and  making  them 
inaccessible  for  examination. 

Of  the  six  firemen,  three  were  relieved  from  watch  the  second  day 
out,  leaving  but  one  man  on  a  watch  to  fire  twelve  furnaces  in  two  dif- 
ferent fire-rooms  separated  by  the  length  of  the  double-ended  boilers. 
The  water-tender  did  not  touch  the  burners  except  in  emergency,  his 
duty  being  to  'tend  water,  fill  settling  tanks  and  record  height  of  oil  in 
them,  record  temperatures  of  oil  at  settling  tank  and  in  heater,  of  fire- 
room  and  of  superheated  air,  take  reading  of  lower  pyrometer  where 
the  two  uptakes  meet,  and  run  oil  pump  supplying  oil  to  the  settling 
tanks  and  small  oil  pump  supplying  oil  to  the  oil  heater. 

As  a  coal  burner  the  "Mariposa"  formerly  had  the  following 
engineer  force:  1  chief  engineer,  3  assistant  engineers,  3  oilers,  12  fire- 
men, 12  coal-passers,  3  water-tenders,  1  messenger,  1  storekeeper; 
total,  36. 

A  reduction  of  16  men  in  the  fire-room  force  is  effected  by  oil  burn- 
ing. At  sea  she  now  needs  but  3  firemen,  but  carried  6.  This  would 
reduce  the  force  by  19  men. 

Temperatures  of  fire-room  seem  to  be  about  what  one  would  expect  in 
coal  burning,  but  the  temperature  of  the  uptake  and  smokepipe  gases 
runs  high,  the  maximum  being  925°,  wliich  shows  an  undue  loss  of  heat 
here.  The  temperature  of  the  oil  in  the  settling  tanks  ranged  between 
68°  and  100°  F.  on  the  trip  out,  and  between  90°  and  108°  F.  on  the 
trip  back. 

The  oil  auxiliaries  comprise  1  large  oil  pump,  2  small  oil  i)unips,  2 
oil  heaters,  1  air-compressor,  and  4  strainers. 

There  is  a  steam  pipe  connection  to  blow  out  the  oil  strainers,  and 
another  one  to  blow  out  the  oil  burners  when  clogged. 

On  August  3  the  air-compressor  needed  overhauling,  and  steam 
atomizing  was  kept  up  during  two  and  one  half  hours  until  the  com- 


132  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

pressor  was  again  working.  During  this  time  the  evaporator  supplied 
enough  feed  water  to  use  20  burners;  the  engines  were  not  stopped  while 
shifting  from  steam  to  air  atomizing,  and  averaged  67.8  turns  for  tlie 
two  and  one  half  hours.  They  had  before  been  making  70  turns.  Also 
during  the  four  days  in  port  at  Tahiti  the  forward  main  single-ended 
three-furnace  boiler  was  used,  atomizing  with  steam.  Generally  two 
burners  in  the  middle  furnace  gave  ample  steam  to  run  the  following 
auxiliaries,  all  exhausting  into  the  atmosphere,  the  boiler  being  fed 
with  fresh  water  from  the  dock:  Ice  machine,  dynamo,  flushing  pump, 
feed  injector,  two  cargo  winches,  small  portable  steam  pump,  and  steam 
for  cooking,  bathtubs,  etc. 

At  first  two  firemen  and  a  water-tender  were  on  watch  at  a  time,  each 
fireman  having  one  fire-room  of  six  furnaces  or  twelve  burners.  The 
men  had  but  little  experience,  combustion  was  poor,  much  smoke  was 
made,  much  oil  burned,  and  poor  speed  attained.  To  locate  the  respon- 
sibility for  bad  adjustment  of  burner  valves,  but  one  fireman  was  put 
on  at  a  time  to  attend  twelve  furnaces  (twenty-four  burners).  This 
made  an  improvement  in  the  combustion. 

Unfortunately,  the  top  of  the  funnel  can  not  be  seen  from  either  fire- 
room,  and  while  the  fireman  can  tell  by  the  appearance  of  the  flame  as 
shown  in  the  sight-hole,  or  even  by  the  roar  of  the  burner,  when  the 
combustion  is  perfect,  in  designing  a  boiler-room  for  liquid  fuel  the 
ventilators  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  top  of  the  smoke-pipe  can 
be  seen  from  each  fire-room. 

The  work  of  the  fireman  Avould  be  even  easier  than  it  is  and  better 
results  attained  if  the  oil  and  air'  pressure  is  kept  constant  and  the 
heated  temperature  of  the  oil  constant.  The  apparatus  then,  once 
properly  adjusted,  would  need  very  little  change.  To  get  these  results 
is  a  mere  matter  of  detail  easily  arranged.  If  the  temperature  of  the 
oil  rises  it  feeds  more  freely  and  a  readjustment  is  necessary,  and  the 
same  conditions  hold  with  regard  to  the  pressure. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  addition  to  the  independent  oil  and  air  sup- 
ply valves  the  burners  are  fitted  with  an  air  plug  cock  and  an  oil  plug 
cock  connected  to  one  lever,  which  then  controls  both  oil  and  air  supply, 
enabling  the  opei"Titor  to  shut  them  both  off  at  once  in  emergency.  At 
first  when  steam  went  up  too  high  and  a  burner  was  shut  down  this 
lever  was  used;  but  shutting  off  the  air  thus  gave  the  compressor  less 
work,  and  as  its  governor  was  not  sensitive  the  air  pressure  increased, 
making  a  readjustment  of  all  oil  and  air  supply  valves  necessary,  with 
consequent  smoke.  Later  on,  when  it  was  desirable  to  shut  down  a 
burner,  the  oil  alone  was  shut  off  by  the  independent  feed  valve  on  the 
burner,  and  the  untouched  air  valve  kept  the  air-compressor's  work 
more  nearly  constant;  then  when  the  burner  was  again  required,  the  oil 
valve  was  opened  and  immediately  lighted  from  the  flame  of  the 
adjacent  burner. 


LlyllU    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  133 

In  starting  fires  with  everything  cold,  steam  is  raised  on  the  auxiliary 
boiler  which  burns  coal,  and  the  air-compressor,  oil  pumps,  and  oil 
heater  are  started.  The  oil  is  lighted  by  inserting  oil-soaked  rags  in 
the  air  space  surrounding  tlie  burner  and  touching  a  lamp  to  them,  or 
an  arrangement  like  a  gas-lighter  may  be  used. 

Sometimes  when  the  air  pressure  is  too  high,  or  insufficient  oil  is 
feeding,  the  flame  flickers  and  may  go  out.  If  the  oil  is  kept  feeding 
under  these  conditions,  on  relighting  there  is  a  small  explosion  of  the 
gases  in  the  furnace,  with  a  momentary  back  draft  through  the 
peepholes  and  ashpans. 

When  shut  down  July  19,  for  two  and  one  half  hours,  plugging  con- 
denser tubes,  one  burner  at  each  end  of  each  boiler  (four  burners  in  all) 
furnished  steam  to  run  all  auxiliaries,  including  feed  pump,  bilge  pump, 
air-compressor,  ice  machine,  dynamo,  and  flushing  pump,  all  of  which 
were  exhausting  into  the  atmosphere. 

In  the  Grundell-Tucker  burner  the  oil,  heated  by  a  steam  coil 
under  boiler  pressure  throttled  down,  passes  through  the  inside  pipe 
and  is  thrown  out  radially  through  the  series  of  small  holes.  The  air, 
first  heated  by  compression  up  to  20  pounds,  is  further  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature of  about  350°  F.  in  the  air  chamber  surrounding  the  burner, 
and  called  the  air  superheater.  Air  can  be  used  at  the  temperature  at 
which  it  leaves  the  compressor,  and  was  so  used  on  the  trip  down  until 
July  17,  when  the  superheaters  were  connected  up.  This  air  under  the 
pressure  of  about  20  pounds  surrounds  the  oil  pipe  in  the  burner  and 
passes  axially  along  the  pipe  until  near  the  end,  where  it  is  given  a 
whirling  motion  through  small  helical  passages  arranged  like  the  rifling 
of  a  gun.  It  crosses  axially  and  whirling  through  the  fine  oil  streams 
spurting  radially  from  the  end  of  the  burner,  breaking  up  the  oil  into 
fine  spray,  the  drops  of  which  can  be  seen  before  they  ignite.  A  fur- 
ther air  supply  (cold)  is  admitted  through  the  hinged  door  of  the  ash- 
pan,  and  is  directed  up  across  the  path  of  the  flame  and  heated  also  by 
a  curved  fire-brick  wall  built  in  the  ashpan  close  to  the  front. 

This  ashpan  door  is  not  moved  much,  but  the  regulation  of  the  air 
supply  is  by  the  valve  control  of  the  air  and  oil  in  the  burner.  The 
flame  should  be  a  steady,  full,  white  or  yellowish  white  one,  filling  the 
furnace. 

The  principal  difficulties  encountered  were  in  the  regulation  of  the 
supply  of  oil  to  the  heaters  by  the  pump  and  the  consequent  variation 
of  the  temperature  of  the  heated  oil  and  the  freedom  of  fiow  through 
the  burners.  An  automatic  submerged  float,  arranged  like  a  steam 
trap  and  fitted  in  the  oil  heater  to  control  the  throttle  of  the  pump, 
failed  to  give  good  automatic  results,  and  the  supply  of  oil  was  regulated 
by  hand.  If  the  oil  was  heated  too  much  (above  150°  F.)  some  of  the 
volatile  gases  are  given  off  and  mingle  with  the  air  pressing  on  top  of 


134  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

the  oil  in  the  heater,  thence  passing  with  the  air  into  the  air  super- 
heaters and  burners,  the  result  being  that  on  one  occasion  a  heater  got 
red  hot  from  this  cause. 

Another  difliculty  was  due  to  the  choking  of  the  strainers  by  foreign 
matter  and  impurities  in  the  oil,  shutting  off  the  supply  of  oil,  and  on 
one  occasion,  August  10,  putting  out  all  the  fires.  Just  previous  to  the 
fires  going  out,  and  while  the  usual  air  supply  was  on,  and  an  insufficient 
amount  of  oil  being  fed,  a  dense  white  smoke  like  steam  arose  from  the 
funnel.  This  strainer  difficulty  will  be  solved  by  fitting  the  strainers 
in  pairs,  so  that  a  clean  one  can  always  be  switched  in  while  the 
choked  one  is  being  cleaned. 

Generally  the  revolutions  of  the  engines  did  not  vary  much  during 
the  day,  and  in  calculating  the  horsepower  for  each  day's  average 
revolutions,  when  the  cards  for  that  day  differed  much,  that  set  was 
selected  whose  revolutions  were  near  the  average  for  the  day  witli  the 
indicated  horsepower,  assumed  to  vary  as  the  cube  of  the  revolutions. 
If  the  two  sets  of  cards  for  the  day  had  the  same  number  of  revolutions 
their  average  indicated  horsepower  was  used  as  a  basis  to  compute  the 
day's  horsepower  as  before. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  log  accompanying  this  report  is  kept  from 
noon  to  noon.  This  was  done  as  the  patent  log  was  inaccurate,  and 
the  speed  of  the  ship  was  got  from  noon  positions  as  given  by  sights. 

It  will  be  noted  that  speed  was  much  higher  on  the  return  trip  than 
on  the  outgoing,  which  is  ascribed  partly  to  the  better  combustion  as 
the  firemen  got  experience,  partly  to  the  overhauling  of  the  bearings 
at  Tahiti  by  the  force  on  board,  and  mostly  to  the  increased  oil  con- 
sumption allowed  after  the  run  down  had  proved  that  there  was  plenty 
of  oil  for  the  return  trip,  which  was  a  matter  of  some  doubt  before,  the 
ship  being  provided  with  coal  for  twenty-four  hours  to  cover  possible 
emergency. 

Full  power  was  not  developed  in  the  two  boilers  used,  as  schedule 
time  was  easily  exceeded  with  from  two  to  four  burners  shut  off,  though 
it  would  not  appear,  from  the  tabulated  results,  that  the  indicated  horse- 
power would  equal  what  can  be  got  with  a  good  system  of  forced  draft. 
This  burner,  however,  works  well  with  the  Howden  system  of  forced 
draft,  as  seen  on  the  tank  steamer  "George  Loomis." 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  tabulated  calculations  are  all  based 
on  the  indicated  horsepower  of  the  main  engines  only,  as  it  was  con- 
sidered better  to  use  only  data  actually  obtained,  and  afterwards  esti- 
mated data,  such  as  indicated  horsepower  of  auxiliaries,  could  be 
applied  without  vitiating  the  observed  data  and  results.  No  cards 
could  be  taken  from  any  of  the  auxiliaries,  Ijut  careful  estimates  give 
the  following  results: 


LIQUID    FUEL   ON   STEAMSHIPS.  135 

Air-compressor,  at  GO  revolutions  per  minute 110  I.  H.  P. 

Auxiliary  feed  pump  and  two  oil  pumps,  one  used  intermittently  30  " 

Dynamos 30  " 

Ice  machine 7  " 

Circulating  pump 5  " 

Flushing  pump 2  " 

Baths,  steam  tables,  evaporator,  cooking,  etc 11  " 

Total 195 

The  steering  engine  was  not  used  except  near  port. 

The  size  of  air-compressor  was  based  on  the  assumption  that  it 
requires  one  cubic  foot  of  free  air  for  every  pound  of  water  evaporated 
from  and  at  212°  F.,  as  shown  by  tests  of  various  oil  burners  at  Western 
Sugar  Retinerv,  San  Francisco.^ 

The  weights  of  oil  auxiliaries  are  as  follows  : 

Air-compressor . 9     tons 

Two  settling  tanks 12 

Two  oil  heaters 2 

Two  oil  pumps  (small) ^ 

One  oil  pvimp  (large) 1^ 

Fifteen  superheaters  (air)  front 3.1 

All  pipes,  valves,  fittings,  ventilators,  etc. 8 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  boilers  were  designed  for  coal 
burning;  that  the  oil-burning  plant  was  fitted  in  a  hurry,  the  machin- 
ists not  leaving  the  ship  until  the  gong  rang  for  people  to  go  ashore; 
that  the  firemen  Avere  without  experience  in  oil  burning,  and  that  most 
of  the  automatic  gear  did  not  function  properly. 

With  the  air  pressure  constant;  with  the  oil  heated  at  constant  tem- 
perature near  140°  F.;  with  oil  strainers  arranged  in  pairs,  so  that  one 
is  always  efficient,  and  with  experience  in  firing,  the  results  in  economy 
of  oil  should  be  much  better  on  the  next  trip;  and  the  fireman's  work, 
already  very  easy,  will  approach  supervising  automatic  regulation. 
The  fireman  does  not  need  strength  nor  previous  training  with  coal. 
He  should  have  a  good  eye,  good  ear,  some  common  sense,  and  a  desire 
to  learn  a  new  and  easy  trade. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  state  that  every  facility  was  given  me  by  all 
the  officers  of  the  company,  the  chief  engineer  of  the  ship  being  par- 
ticularly zealous  in  arranging  for  the  taking  of  required  data. 

Very  respectfully, 

Ward  Winchell, 
Lieutenant,  United  States  Navy. 
Chief  of  Bureau  of  Stecnn  Engineering, 
Navy  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1  The  eight  tests  made  by  the  Liquid  Fuel  Board  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineer- 
ing, in  which  air  burners  were  used,  consumed  from  34.3  cubic  feet  to  78.3  cubic  feet  of 
free  air  per  pound  of  oil,  an  average  on  the  quantities  of  oil  burned  on  the  eight  runs 
of  52.7  cubic  feet,  which  at  an  average  evaporation  for  these  runs  of  13.53  pounds  of 
water  per  pound  of  oil,  woukl  be  3.9  cubic  feet  of  free  air  per  pound  of  water  evaporated 
from  and  at  212°  F. 


136 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Actual  Time. 


Slip  of  Screw,  in 
per  cent 


Knots  Made  per 
Barrel  of  Oil... 


Knots  Made  per 
Ton  of  Oil 


Pouiiils    of    Oil 
per  Knot  Run 


Pounds  of  Oil 
per  Hour  per 
I.  H.  P.  .■- 


Sijuare  Feet  of 
Heating  S  u  r- 
faceperl.  H.  P, 


I.  H.  P.,  Main 
Engines,  per 
Pound  of  Oil 
per  Hour. 


I.  H.  P.,  Main 
Engines,  per 
Square  Foot  of 
Grate 


Oil  Used   per 
Hour,  Pounds. 


Oil  Used  per 
Day,  Tons  of 
2240  pounds  . . . 


Oil  Used  per 
Day,  Barrels.. 


I.    H.  P.,     Main 
Engines  Only. 


Revolutions  per 
Minute  .- 


Knots  per  Hour. 


Knots  per  Day. 


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LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


137 


The  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  lias  also  received  the  following 
summary  of  the  second  voyage  of  the  steamship  "  Mariposa  "  on  the 
round  tvi})  hctween  San  Francisco  and  Tahiti.  The  data  show  that 
the  oil  consumption  on  the  second  voyage  was  considerably  less  than 
that  on  the  tirst,  due  to  two  causes:  Imi)rovements  in  detail  of  the  oil- 
fuel  installation  and  increased  skill  and  intelligence  upon  the  part  of 
the  engine-room  force. 

The  Oceanic  Steamship  Company  is  fitting  an  oil-fuel  installation  on 
the  sister  ship  "Alameda,"  and  it  can  \h'  expected  that  when  a  spirited 
rivalry  is  created  between  the  crews  of  the  "Alameda  "  and  "'  Mai-ij)Osa" 
even  better  results  Avill  lie  forthcomino;. 


TABLE   18.     GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  LOG  OF  0.  S.  S.  "MARIPOSA. 
Voyage   No.  2,  from  San  Francisco  to  Tahiti. 


D.*^TE— 1902. 


1-% 


t^   w  — 


to"' 


-2 


o-^ 


•J. 


-?r    -"^"^ 


August  21- 
22 
22,. 
24. 
25- 
26- 
27- 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31- 


328 
297 
282 
330 
310 
311 
292 
305 
305 
322 
326 


13.3 
12.3 
13.3 
13.6 
12.8 
12.8 
12.1 
12.6 
12.6 
13.3 
13.5 


63.7 
62.6 
64.0 
65.9 
62.0 
62.0 
62.0 
62.1 
62.2 
65.0 
66.0 


255 
225 
210 
235 
220 
210 
220 
220 
220 
230 
240 


Average,  U  days.- 
Voyage  1,  11  days- 


309.9 
312.7 


12.96 
13.12 


63.4 
65.2 


226 
264.8 


36.43 
32.14 

30.00 
33.59 
31.43 
30.09 
31.43 
31.43 
31.4.-; 
32.>SH 
34.28 


3,400 
3,000 
2,800 
3,133 
2,933 
2,800 
2,933 


32.28 
36.40 


:;,iitit; 
3,200 


248.8 
242.8 
237.4 
227.9 
227.1 
216.1 
241.1 
230.8 

L'l^s.e 

235.6 


3,013 
3,412 


233.3 
260.9 


9.00 
9.24 
9.43 

9.82 
9.86 
10.37 
9.29 
9.70 
9.70 
9.80 
9.51 


1.29 
1.32 
1.35 
1.40 
1.41 
1.48 
1.33 
1.39 
1.39 
1.40 
1.35 


9.60 

8.585 


1.37 
1.22 


7.0 

13.4 

9.0 

8.8 

8.8 

8.5 

13.8 

10.3 

10.5 

9.5 

9.4 


9.9 
13.14 


Average  temperature  of  uptake,  548*;    average  temperature  of  superheaters,  360*;  average 
temperature  of  cold  oil,  91*. 

Voyage  No.  2,  from  Tahiti  to  San  Francisco. 


Date— 1902. 

?1 

7\ 

o 
-1 

■  2 

■"i 

•5 

OO  1-1 

i  2.? 

1— 1  '^- 

s2 

=  5 

■d  3 
ft  '-~ 
■-I 

is 
ft 

September  6 

7 

8 

292 
301 
288 
298 
276 
327 
303 
317 
307 
324 
321 

12.2 
12'.6 
12.1 
12.5 
12.2 
13.7 
12.7 
13.2 
13.2 

62.1 
62.6 
62.9 
63.1 
64.7 
66.9 
67.1 
67.3 
67.4 

215 
220 
220 
220 

30.71  '  2,867       235.6 
31.43  1  2,933       233.8 
31.43    2,933       244.4 

9.51 
9.57 
9.16 

1.36  12.6 

1.37  11.2 
1.31       15.5 

9 

31.43     2.93;^       2.36.2    i  9.48 

1.35       12.6 

10 

11 

220     '  31.43    2,933       255.1 
245     1  35.00  j  3,267       240.0 
250     1  35.71  i  3,333       264.0 
265     i  37.44    3,533       267.5 
260       37.45    .3.466     1 271.0 

8.46 
9.34 
8.48 
8.53 
8.20 
8.54 
8.32 

1.25       13.4 
1.33         9.4 

12 

1.21    i    16.5 

13  .     

1.20       13.0 

14 

1.18       13.0 

15 

13.8       69.0 

265 
270 

37.ifl    3,533     '261.7 
38  57  ^  3,600       269.1 

1.22       12.0 

16 

13.5 

69.2 

1.19    '    13.9 

Average,  11  days 

Voyage  1,  10  days 

304.9 
331.9 

12.7 
13.96 

65.7 
70.6 

241 
295.5 

34.46    3,212     j  252.6 
42.22    3,981.6    284.79 

8.87 
7.841 

1.27    !   13.01 
1.122     12.89 

-Average  temperature  of  uptake,  546° 
temperature  of  cold  oil,  90° 


average  temperature  of  superheaters,  360°;   average 


138 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Steamer  "Berkeley." — The  bay  and  ferry  steamers  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company  Ijurn  oil  exclusively,  with  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
The  change  from  coal  to  oil  burning  involved  merely  the  ))uilding  of 
tanks  in  the  coal-bunker  space,  the  installation  of  the  necessary  pumps, 
etc.,  and  the  substitution  of  checker  walls  for  grates  in  the  furnaces. 
As  giving  an  idea  of  the  cost  of  such  changes,  it  is  stated  that  the  oil 
installation  on  one  of  the  largest  ferry-boats  cost  $1700  complete. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Wm.  McKenzie,  Superintendent  of  River 
and  Ferry  Steamers,  Southern  Pacific  Company,  it  is  possible  to  give  a 


Fig.  42.     Plan  of  Boiler  Room,  Steamer  "Berkeley." 


description  of  boiler-room  and  fuel-oil  plant  on  the  steamer  "Berkeley.' 
running  between  San  Francisco  and  Oakland  Mole. 

The  "Berkeley''  is  a  propeller  boat  of  1245  tons,  length  260',  beam 
40',  draught  8'  9",  constructed  in  1902  by  the  Union  Iron  Works.  The 
propellers,  one  at  each  end  of  the  boat,  are  8'  in  diameter,  14'  pitch, 
with  34  square  feet  of  surface.  The  engines,  constructed  by  the  Union 
Iron  Works,  are  triple  expansion,  the  cylinders  being  22",  34",  and  56" 
respectively,  with  36"  stroke,  using  steam  at  165  pounds  in  high  pres- 
sure, condensing  at  26"  vacuum  through  1824  |"  brass  tubes,  having 
2475  square  feet  of  cooling  surface.  They  are  handled  by  steam- 
operated  link  reversing  gear. 

The  boilers  are  four  in  number,  placed  end  to  end  in  pairs,  with 
continuous  furnaces.  Fig.  42  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  boiler- 
room  and  oil  connections.     Boilers  are  internally  fired,  two  corrugated 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  189 

furnaces  to  the  boiler,  the  total  heating  surface  being  4820  square  feet. 
The  Howden  system  of  forced  draft  is  used,  air  being  forced  by  a  fan 
through  a  series  of  pipes  placed  in  the  uptake,  where  it  is  heated  to 
approximately  the  temperature  of  flue  gases.  The  air  pressure  main- 
tained is  sufficient  to  balance  the  draft,  water  gauge  on  ashpit  fluctuat- 
ing somewhat,  but  showing  on  an  average  neither  pressure  nor  vacuum. 

Oil  is  stored  in  four  upright  cylindrical  tanks,  placed  at  ends  of  the 
old  coal  spaces.  The  bunkers,  two  in  number,  are  8'xl4'x88';  the  tanks, 
two  to  each  bunker,  are  approximately  7'  diameter  by  10'  high,  and 
hold  2750  gallons  each.  They  are  of  y\"  steel,  with  flat  bottoms  and 
tops,  the  latter  being  tight,  with  gas  outlet  through  side  of  vessel. 
They  are  connected  in  pairs  with  the  main  oil  feed,  the  pipes  entering 
tanks  about  one  foot  from  the  bottom,  and  being  provided  with  inde- 
pendent valves  to  prevent  passage  of  oil  from  one  tank  to  another  in 
case  of  listing  or  heavy  rolling. 

From  the  tanks,  the  cold  oil  passes  to  the  pumps,  of  which  there  are 
two — one  in  use,  the  other  held  in  reserve.  The  pumps  are  Knowles 
duplex  piston  pattern,  4^  x  2f  x  4.  The  oil  is  discharged  through  a  spring- 
governed  regulator,  by-passed  into  the  suction,  into  the  pressure  tank,  a 
cylinder  about  18"  diameter  by  5'  high.  The  air  cushion  in  this  tank 
is  maintained  by  occasionally  pumping  in  air  against  oil  pressure,  and 
takes  up  the  pulsations  of  the  pump,  oil  entering  and  leaving  the 
tank  from  sides  near  bottom.  From  the  pressure  tank  the  oil  passes  to 
the  heater,  consisting  of  a  cylinder  5'  high  and  8"  diameter,  with  a 
single  l-j"  pipe  passing  up  through  the  center,  through  which  passes 
the  exhaust  steam  from  oil  pump.  The  oil  entering  the  heater  at  the 
bottom  is  heated  to  about  70^  F.  before  being  discharged  from  the  top 
into  a  strainer  of  fine  wire  gauze,  passing  from  the  strainer  to  the  main 
burner  supply. 

The  burners  are  the  "  Little  Giant,"  an  inside  mixing  burner  of  the 
tubular  type.  The  atomizing  agent  is  steam  at  boiler  pressure,  165 
pounds,  controlled  by  a  globe  valve;  oil  is  taken  to  the  burner  at  45 
pounds,  and  controlled  by  a  lever-handle  cock.  The  air  supply  enters 
furnace  at  top  and  bottom,  and  is  controlled  by  a  globe  valve.  As 
these  ferry  steamers  make  a  landing  and  a  ten-minute  stop  every  thirty 
minutes,  it  is  necessary  that  the  fires  should  be  readily  stopped  and 
started,  and  in  practice  a  single  movement  of  the  oil  cock  lever,  the 
opening  of  air  valve,  and  a  slight  adjustment  of  steam  supply,  are  all 
that  is  required,  the  oil  igniting  readily  from  the  brickwork  in  the 
furnace,  and  the  steam  only  requiring  adjustment,  and  that  very  little. 
Tlie  oil  supply  is  run  steadily  at  full  opening;  if  necessary  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  oil,  this  is  done,  not  by  turning  the  lever,  l)ut  by  altering 
the  width  of  opening  of  the  cock,  the  oil  passage  through  the  plug  lieing 
of  inverted  V  shape,  and  regulated  by  an  interior  sleeve  by  which  the 


140  I>KTIU)I,ErM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

orifice  may  l)e  j)artially  or  cntiri'ly  closed.  It  is  thus  possible  to  run 
always  with  oil  coek  wide  open,  while  if  necessary  to  alter  the  rate  of 
How  for  any  reason,  which  seldom  occurs,  the  adjustment  may  be  read- 
ily effected  from  the  outside,  without  stopping  the  flow  or  altering 
position  of  lever. 

The  furnaces  are  lined  from  end  to  end  with  a  single  course  of  fire- 
l)rick,  extending  half  way  u})  the  side.  About  three  feet  l^ack  of  the 
door  is  placed  a  checker  wall  of  flre-brick,  reaching  rather  more  than 
half  way  up  the  furnace,  and  two  feet  farther  back  another  wall  of  sim- 
ilar construction  and  height.  The  Inirner  is  entered  near  the  bottom  of 
firebox,  and  set  level,  the  flame  striking  against  and  through  the  checker 
walls,  the  object  ])eing  to  distribute  the  heat  more  uniformly  through 
the  furnace  than  can  be  done  with  a  naked  flame.  The  boilers  being 
flred  from  l)oth  ends  have  a  common  combustion  chamber,  but  on 
installing  oil  burners  this  comlnistion  chamber  was  divided  by  a  light 
wall  of  flre-brick,  placed  crosswise,  and  reaching  within  an  inch  of  toj) 
of  chamber,  thus  making  each  boiler  independent. 

The  experience  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  in  the  use  of  liquid 
fuel  on  steamers,  as  stated  by  Mr.  McKenzie,  has  been  entirely  satis- 
factory. Labor  has  been  decreased,  dust  from  handling  coal  and  ashes 
entirely  done  away  with,  fire-room  temperature  lowered  (though  tem- 
perature in  uptakes  is  higher  than  when  using  coal),  time  in  loading  is 
diminished  (the  "Berkeley"  oils  but  once  in  two  days),  and  a  great 
economy  in  fuel  costs  realized.  Mr.  McKenzie  states  that  l)y  handling 
and  injecting  the  oil  practically  cold  (the  gravity  is  14°)  formation  of 
carbon  deposits  in  the  firebox  is  entirely  avoided,  and  that  the  greatest 
economy  is  had  when  a  faint  trace  of  smoke  is  rising  from  the  stack. 
It  has  l)een  shown  in  their  experience  that  the  loss  arising  from  the 
slight  waste  of  combustible  gases  incident  to  producing  traces  of  smoke 
is  much  less  than  that  due  to  the  use  of  the  excess  of  air  necessary  to 
secure  complete  combustion. 

On  the  ''  Berkeley,"  and  other  steamers  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Com- 
pany, steam  for  the  burners  is  superheated  l)y  means  of  a  small  coil  of 
hydraulic  pipe  in  the  firel)ox.  The  temperature  of  steam  as  super- 
heated is  regulated  by  altering  length  of  coil.  They  find  it  desirable 
to  heat  the  steam  to  a  high  temperature,  just  below  the  point  at  which 
''starring"  takes  place.  "Starring"  is  rather  ditticult  to  describe, 
although  easily  recognized  l)y  the  eye.  When  it  is  taking  place  the  flame, 
instead  of  Ijeing  smooth  and  of  even  color,  is  filled  Avith  small  sparks, 
(u-  stars,  due  pro!)ably  to  the  oil  being  heated  by  the  steam  al)ove  its 
vaporizing  point,  so  that  when  ejected  into  the  firebox  and  thus  released 
from  pressure,  the  drops  actually  explode,  rather  than  burn.  When 
"  starring"  is  ol)served,  carbon  deposits  are  always  found  in  the  firebox, 
it  is  stated. 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


141 


The  experience  of  the  Soutliern  Pacific  Company  has  been  tliat  the 
form  of  atomizer  is  the  least  important  essential  to  success  in  oil  hurn- 
inu',  the  adjustment  of  atomizer,  of  steam,  air  and  oil  pressure,  and 
particuhirly  of  the  form  of  furnace,  to  the  conditions,  being  far  more 
important.  Many  of  their  heaviest  furnaces  are  equipped  with  h(mie- 
made  l)urners  of  the  simplest  construction,  wliicli  they  iind  entirely 
satisfactory. 

Economy. — As  liearin<i-  on  the  economy  incident  to  the  substitution 
of  litiuitl  for  solid  fuel  in  marine  work,  figures  ha\x'  l)een  obtained  in 
regard  to  the  fuel  consumption  of  seven  steamers  plying  on  the  !)ay  and 
rivers,  showing  the  fuel  consumption  for  corresponding  months  in  1902 
and  1903,  the  steamers  having  meanwhile  been  changed  from  coal  to- 
oil  burners.  The  data  were  olitained  from  otHcial  sources,  and  may  be 
entirelv  relied  on. 


TABLE 

19. 

FUEL 

CONSUMPTION 

ON  BAY  AND  RIVER 

STEAMERS 

• 

ID 

O 

No. 

Men  in 

Fire- 

Room. 

Saving 

in 
Wages 

of 
Fire- 
men. 

Fuel  Consumed. 

Miles  Run. 

Fuel  per  Mile  Run. 

Ratio  of 
Cost. 

3 

Coal, 

1902. 

Oil,  1903. 

Coal, 

1902. 

Oil, 

1903. 

2^2, 

rs 
1 

1902. 

1903. 

Coal. 

Oil. 

cj."" 

'02. 

•03. 

Tons. 

Cost. 

Bbls.  Cost. 

Tons. 

Cost. 

Bbls. 

Cost. 

5  3  O 

1 

8 

fi 

fllO.OO 

460| 

$3.65 

1488J 

10.60 

3322 

2996 

.1387 

Cts. 
50.6 

.4967 

Cts. 
29.8 

1.000 

0.589 

3.59- 

2 

8 

6 

42.:W 

91 

3.65 

1224 

60 

825 

27:M 

.1103 

40.3 

.4484 

26.9 

1.000 

0.667 

4.06- 

3 

10 

8 

140.00 

1184 
)500 

3.70 
5.00 

2559* 

60 

4261 

4284 

.1606 

74.7 

.5975 

31.6 

1.000 

0.423 

*3.72 

4 

10 

8 

59.60 

204 
108| 

4.00 
3.00 

2060 

60 

1703 

4329 

.1836 

67.0 

.4759 

28.5 

1.000 

0.425 

»2.7a 

1    91 
1  2711 

395i 
373J 

3.00 
3.75 

3.75 
3.75 

1295i 

m 

2353 
3635 
3730 

2353 
3530 
3635 

.1539 
.1087 
.1002 

54.8 
40.8 
37.5 

..5505 
.36:34 
.3279 

33.0 
20.8 
19.7 

1.000 
1.000 
1.000 

0.425_ 
0..510 
0..524 

*3.4& 

n 

1222J        60 
1180*        60 

3.20 

7 

3.27 

♦Average. 

To  bring  the  comparisons  down  to  the  plainest  possible  basis,  we  may 
take  the  cost  per  mile  for  coal  in  1902,  and  for  oil  in  1903,  and  apply 
each  of  the  figures  to  the  numl)er  of  miles  run  in  1903.  Doing  this  we 
find  that  — 

With  steamer  No.  1  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $1515.98,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $892.81;  a  .saving  of  $623. 17,  or  slightly  over  41%,  besides  a 
saving  of  $140  for  labor  on  the  month's  run. 

With  steamer  Xo.  2  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $1097.19,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $734.37;  a  saving  of  $362.82,  or  over  33%,  in  addition  to  a 
saving  of  $42.30  on  labor. 

With  steamer  Xo.  3  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $3200.15,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $1353.74;  a  saving  of  $1846.40,  or  almost  58%,  besides  the 
saving  of  $140  on  labor  bill. 

With  steamer  Xo.  4  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $2901.10,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $1234.05;  a  saving  of  $1667.05,  or  over  57%,  besides  saving 
$59.60  on  labor. 


142 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


With  steamer  No.  5  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $1289.44,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $776.49;  a  saving  of  $512.95,  or  40%. 

With  steamer  No.  6  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $1440.24,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $734.24;  a  saving  of  $706.00,  or  almost  49%. 

With  steamer  No.  7  the  cost  for  coal  would  have  been  $1368.12,  the  cost 
for  oil  was  $716.10;  a  saving  of  $647.02,  or  almost  48%. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  each  of  these  is  the  figures  for  one 
..j2_^-2__^-;j;-  month     only;     also,     that 

these  steamers  run  on  the 
bay,  and  are  by  no  means 
of  the  largest.  Yet  the 
annual  saving,  on  the  basis 
of  this  month's  run,  would 
be  from  $22,156.80  to 
$4,353.84,  and  for  the  seven 
would  aggregate  $76,384.92. 


APPUCATION  FOR  PEBMISSION  TO  USE  PETRdLElM. 


XTici'tv  '^^U-rvOuJcC  , 


Thr  HoHoraiU 

The  Serretary  of  Comtueret  tiHd  LitOor, 

Waxhin6l„ 


J^ 


.isob 


steamer    >-0to»Z-    ^O-Vt't-^t^  of     s/^^>**->«-«.Z>>t,    

.Sheis        ^S¥y^     cross  Ions, neasur.mrnt.  /  5q        t"<'S. 

-    ^J  Too  beani,  itrnl  //     j^^  depth  of  hoht.  uitd 

will  be  used  for         u^A^/i-OM'  >-W«</^7*^*'^<' onlij.in  the 

.caters  of     .^^  ^i-C^U  (TeCO^     -^ Ar^t-^tZiiA^llC 
suthjetA  to  tfu  approval  of  the  local  in.tpedors  in  trhose  'lislnct  ^^lic  mu;/  he  usctt. 
lilue  print  showing  location  of  oil  tanks  is  inrlose^l  htnicith, 

Tlif  andfrsigned,  ejcperls  in  the  installalion  of  fiiel-oll-lmriiiii(  /,lauls  on 
Steam  vessels,  do  herebi/  certify,  thai,  in  our  opinion,  the  method  of  burning 
petroleum  oil,  location  of  fuel  tanks  or  bunkers,  method  of  ventilation,  ptpinl,  and 
furnace  arrangements  fire  safe  and  efUcient  for  thf^urpose  intended. 

r        vl      y  JC  C" — 


The  undersigned,  haling  iiuidr  ii  personal  exanaiialum  of  the  ulu,re-iio 
xle'imer  and  found  thai  the  arrungcuuiU  for  bitriiiiig  /letroleum  «.<  Jiicl  is  r.ri 
as  described  in  blue  pHnt  inrlosal,  do  lirrebij  lerlify,  that,  in  mij  upimon 
arrange m^-nts  fire  stiff  and  r/fit-ieut  fi 


The  following  para- 
graphs by  Mr.  J.  B.  War- 
ner, Chief  Inspector  of 
Hartford  Steam  Boiler  In- 
spection and  Insurance 
Company,  are  reprinted 
from  the  1904  manual  of 
the  Marine  Engineers' 
Beneficial   Association : 

"  Installation  of  Oil-Burn- 
■  ing  Plants  on  Steam  Vessels. 
"  — Owing  to  the  large  pro- 
"  duction  of  fuel  oil  on  the 
"  Pacific  Coast  at  the  pres- 
"  ent  time,  the  owners  of 
"  steamers  are  looking  very 


J^^' 


.-.„,.,. ,,.,.,-.■."       /,-.  "  favorably  upon  that  prod- 

(^r^^      ^    '""^  "uct  to    take  the  place  of 

"  coal.  About  one  hundred 
*'  and  fifty  steamers,  varying  in  gross  tonnage  from  50  to  6000  tons, 
*'  have  oil-burning  plants  installed,  and  are  proving  a  success.  Before 
"  a  plant  can  be  installed  in  any  steam  vessel  now  under  the  super- 
"  vision  of  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  permission  must  be 
"  obtained  from  the  Honorable  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  and 
"  Supervising  Inspector-General,  Washington,  D.  C,  through  the  Super- 
"  vising  Inspector  of  the  district  in  which  the  steamer  is  to  be  operated, 
"  and  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  local  inspectors  of  that  district. 


LIQUID   FUEL   ON   STEAMSHIPS.  143 

"  The  local  inspectors  are  furnished  with  blanks  as  shown  on  page 
*'  142,  to  be  filled  in  and  returned  to  them  and  the  Supervising  Inspector 
^'  for  their  approval,  after  which  the  application  is  forwarded  to  Wash- 
*' ington  for  tinal  approval. 

"  When  filing  the  above  form  of  application  with  the  local  inspectors, 
'a  blueprint  in  duplicate  must  also  be  filed,  giving  three  views  of  the 
'■  steamer  in  which  it  is  desired  to  install  the  plant,  as  follows: 

"  First — A  side  perspective  view,  showing  the  steamer  at  full  length. 
"  Second — A  cross-sectional  amidship  view,  showing  the  location  of 
''the  tanks  athwart  ship. 

"  Third— A  vertical  sectional  or  under-deck  plan,  showing  the  location 
"  of  the  tanks  fore  and  aft. 

"  The  capacity  of  each  fuel  oil  tank  must  be  plainly  shown  on  the 
'■  blueprint  submitted. 

"  The  shape  of  the  tanks  may  be  of  any  design  best  adapted  to 
'  properly  locate  them  in  the  vessel,  if  constructed  of  suitable  material 
'  and  workmanship,  so  that  they  Avill  meet  the  approval  of  the 
'  inspectors. 

"  The  shell  plates  should  be  of  steel  of  good  quality  and  heavy  enough 
'  to  prevent  the  seams  being  opened  by  the  motion  of  the  ship  or  surging 
'  of  the  oil  in  any  weather.  It  is  recommended  that  for  ocean  steamers 
'  the  shell  plates  of  the  tanks  be  yV  ^^  thickness,  and  for  inland 
'  steamers  5"  in  thickness. 

"  The  seams  of  large  cylindrical  tanks  should  be  double  chain-riveted, 
'  sheets  laid  close  and  well  calked. 

"  It  is  also  recommended  that  the  rivet  holes  be  drilled  instead  of 
'  punched.  They  will  then  be  fair,  and  rivets  can  be  driven  to  properly 
'  fill  the  holes  to  prevent  leakage. 

"  It  is  often  remarked  by  boilermakers  and  engineers  that  as  there  is 
'  to  be  no  internal  pressure  applied  to  the  tanks,  any  kind  of  a  seam,  if 
'  only  single-riveted,  provided  it  is  tight,  is  good  enough.  This  might 
'  be  the  case  if  the  tanks  were  to  be  set  up  on  shore  and  remain 
'  stationary.  On  shipboard,  however,  they  are  liable  to  be  subjected 
'  to  many  strains  and  should  be  of  a  character  that  is  above  reproach. 
"  If  the  seams  are  double  chain-riveted,  they  are,  on  account  of  the 
'  increased  lap  of  the  sheets  at  the  joints,  which  greatly  stiffens  the 
'  tanks  at  those  points,  more  apt  to  hold  the  sheets  and  calking  edges 
'tight  when  under  lateral  strains,  than  they  would  l)e  if  only  single- 
'  riveted. 

"  In  long  tanks,  suitable  baffling  plates  should  be  put  in  and  securel}' 
'  fastened  to  prevent  the  oil  from  surging.  Under  each  tank  there  is 
'required  to  be  a  drip  pan.  Tliis  should  be  of  lead  weighing  not  less 
'  than  8  pounds  to  the  square  foot. 

"  There  should  not  be  any  openings  cut  in  the  bottom,  sides  or  ends 
"of  the  tanks;  all  inlets  and  outlets  must  be  through  the  top. 
10— BUL.    32 


144  PETROLEUM    IN   CALIFORNIA. 

"  Reinforcing  flanges  should  be  of  wrought  steel  and  properly  riveted 
"  to  the  top  of  the  tank  for  filling,  suction,  and  vent  pipes. 

"  All  filling  pipes  should  run  to  the  bottom  of  the  tanks,  so  that  when 
'*  the  tanks  are  filled  the  gas  will  be  expelled  through  the  vent  pipes. 

"  The  man-plate  opening  should  be  of  ample  size  (IT'x  IB"  may  do) 
"  to  facilitate  getting  into  the  tank  for  any  purpose.  The  vent  must 
"  have  an  area  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  filling  pipe,  and  should  be 
"  carried  up  above  the  superstructure  of  the  vessel  and  have  a  non- 
"  return  bend  on  the  end  and  covered  with  a  fine  copper  wire  gauze 
"  screen. 

"  The  question  of  crude  oil  for  fuel  and  other  purposes  is  a  matter  of 
"  much  concern  to  the  public  at  large  (especially  so,  in  regard  to  its 
"  safety  on  board  steam  vessels  carrying  passengers).  It  has  engaged 
"  the  attention  of  Federal,  State,  and  municipal  legislators,  with  a  view 
"  to  making  laws  for  greater  safety  in  the  use  of  different  grades  of  fuel 
"  oils.  In  relation  to  the  flash  test  of  oil,  it  is  a  matter  that  should  be 
''  given  much  attention,  for  the  reason  that  all  oils  are  different  as 
"  regards  the  conditions  under  which  they  may  be  safely  stored  and 
"used  for  fuel;  and  as  the  conditions  change  with  the  variation  of 
"  temperature,  the  flash  test  must  change  accordingly;  that  is,  the  flash 
"  point  must  be  higher  in  accordance  with  the  increase  of  temperature. 

"  The  crude  oils  of  California  used  for  fuel  purposes  flash  at  from  85° 
"  to  300°  Fahrenheit,  and  fire  from  138°  to  540°  F. 

"  For  use  on  board  of  passenger  steam  vessels,  an  oil  that  will  not 
"  flash  under  200°  F.  is  indispensable,  for  the  reason  that  the  tempera- 
"  ture  rises  in  the  engine-room  and  fire-room  from  150°  to  160°,  and 
"  sometimes  higher  in  the  tropics;  and  because  oil,  being  a  new  fuel  on 
"  steam  vessels  and  being  handled  in  many  cases  by  new  and  untrained 
"  men,  there  can  not  be  too  many  safeguards  where  the  lives  of  the 
"  traveling  public  are  concerned. 

"  The  laws  of  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  permit  refined  petro- 
"  leum,  which  will  not  ignite  at  less  than  110°  F.,  to  be  carried  in  casein, 
"  containing  ten  gallons  each.  In  most  instances,  it  is  carried  on  the 
"  upper  deck  and  not  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel.  If  the  same  quantity 
"  of  oil  that  is  often  carried  in  that  way  were  stored  in  bulk  in  the 
"  hold,  it  might  be  very  dangerous  and  a  menace  to  life. 

"The  rules  of  the  British  Admiralty  call  for  a  flash  point  of  270°  F.; 
"Lloyd's  Register,  a  flash  test  of  200°  F.;  while  the  German  authori- 
"  ties  accept  150°  F.  as  a  safe  flash  point. 

"  After  many  years  of  successful  experience  in  the  burning  and 
"  storing  of  oil  for  fuel,  Lloyd's  Register  within  the  past  few  months 
"  reduced  the  flash  point  test  to  150°  on  all  steam  vessels  classed  by 
"  them. 

"  With  some  exceptions,  the  experience  with  owners  of  steam  vessels 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS.  145 

"  has  been  that  the  question  of  economy  has  been  considered  too  much 
■  and  that  of  safety  too  Httle. 

"It  does  not  appear  unjust  to  ask  the  oil  dealers  to  furnish  affidavits 
•'  of  the  gravity  tests,  and  of  the  tlash  and  burning  tests  of  oil  sold  to 
•  the  consumer,  to  be  used  for  fuel  purposes,  so  that  })roper  judgment 
•'  may  be  exercised  in  its  handling.  If  such  affidavits  had  been  fur- 
••  nished,  some  accidents  that  have  already  occurred  might  have  been 
•'  obviated.  In  one  case  in  particular,  after  a  large  steamer  was  de- 
''  stroyed,  the  flashing  point  of  the  fuel  oil  was  proven  to  be  only  85°  F. 
•'  Had  this  fact  been  previously  known,  then,  according  to  Lloyd's  rules, 
''  the  oil  would  never  have  been  placed  in  the  steamer  for  fuel  purposes. 

"No  fuel  oil  is  allowed  to  be  carried  in  the  water  bottoms  under  the 
"  engine  or  l^oiler  rooms  on  steamers. 

'^  No  passenger  steamer  burning  oil  as  fuel  will  be  allowed  to  dis- 
•'  charge  any  oil  from  her  tanks,  as  freight,  at  any  port. 

"  Electric  light  fixtures  and  wires  should  be  properly  insulated  and 
"  free  from  danger  of  sparking  near  any  oil  tanks,  or  where  there  is  a 
"  possibility  of  gas  accumulating.  '  Davie '  safety  lamps  should  be  pro- 
"  vided  for  engineers  in  all  cases,  so  that  if  the  electric  light  plant  is 
"  shut  down  or  out  of  order,  they  can  be  used  in  place  of  an  open-flame 
"  lamp. 

"  It  is  very  important  that  suitable  drip  pans  be  provided,  to  be 
"placed  under  the  burners  and  fittings;  also  under  oil  pumps  and  their 
"  connections,  to  catch  any  oil  that  may  leak,  so  that  it  can  not  reach 
"  the  bilges  and  skin  of  the  vessel. 

"  If  it  is  necessary  to  install  an  auxiliary  or  donkey  boiler  in  con- 
"  nection  with  the  oil-burning  plant,  it  must  be  of  tested  material,  and 
"  is  subject  to  the  same  inspection  test,  rules  and  regulations,  as  any 
■■  other  boiler  on  board  of  the  vessel. 

"  The  permit  as  received  from  Washington,  for  oil  burning  on  freight 
"vessels,  requires  that  there  shall  be  valves  in  the  connection  between 
"  the  immediate  supply  tank  and  the  boiler  or  boilers,  to  regulate  the 
"  flow  of  oil  at  all  times,  and  cut  it  wholly  off  when  necessary,  so  that 
"the  fires  will  be  immediately  extinguished;  and  where  more  than  one 
"  tank  is  used  for  storage  of  oil,  and  such  tanks  are  connected  with 
"  pipes  for  discharging  oil  from  one  tank  to  another,  there  shall  be  stop- 
"  cocks  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  opened  or  shut  from  the  deck  of 
■■  the  steamer. 

"  I  would  also  recommend  the  above  arrangement  on  passenger  as 
"  well  as  freight  vessels. 

"  The  laws  as  now  laid  down  by  the  Department  of  Commerce  and 
"  Labor  are  liberal,  therefore  all  due  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
"  install  the  plants  as  safely  as  possible. 

"  If  many  accidents  should  occur  from  oil-burning  plants,  the  Gov- 


146 


PETROLEUM   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


"  ernment  and  insurance  companies  would  soon  put  such    restrictive 
"  measures  in  force  that  there  would  be  no  economy  in  using  oil  as  fuel." 


WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. 

While  the  water-tube  boiler  is  mucli  used  in  marine  work,  there  is  no 
necessary  connection  between  the  two  subjects,  the  matter  being  placed 
here  as  a  matter  of  convenience. 

Aside  from  the  well-known  necessity  of  protecting  lower  tubes  against 
the  direct  action  of  the  flame,  the  burning  of  oil  under  a  water-tube 
boiler  does  not  differ  in  any  particular  from  its  use  under  a  horizontal 


Fig.  43.     Grate  Bar  Setting,  Water-Tube  Boiler. 

tubular  boiler,  although  it  may  be  said  that  an  oil  fire  is  particularly 
suited  to  boilers  with  very  small  water  space,  owing  to  the  great  steadi- 
ness of  the  fire  tending  to  prevent  priming  and  fluctuation  in  pressure. 

The  ordinary  arrangement  of  firebox  for  oil  burning  is  very  simple, 
the  grates  being  covered  with  a  layer  of  fire-brick,  checkerwise,  and  the 
burner  introduced  through  front  in  such  position  that  flame  does  not 
strike  directly  against  lower  tubes.  In  some  cases  the  fire-bars  are 
removed  or  omitted,  and  the  burner  placed  in  the  ashpit.  Fig.  43  illus- 
trates the  former  method  of  setting,  under  a  Heine  boiler. 

When  the  tubes  pass  into  a  mud  drum  placed  back  of  ashpit  it  is  a 
very  difficult  matter  to  so  adjust  burner  as  to  avoid  burning  tubes. 
Even  if  properly  set  in  the  first  place,  the  boiler  may  be  injured  by 
over-firing,  or  by  carbon  deposits  partly  choking  nose  of  burner,  thus 


LIQUID   FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


147 


deflecting  the  flame  up  against  the  tubes.  To  insure  against  this  danger, 
an  arch  siniihir  to  that  of  a  locomotive  firebox  is  sometimes  thrown 
over  the  flame.     Fig.  44  shows  this  device  applied  to  a  National  boiler. 


Fig.  44.     Combustion  Chamber  Setting-,  Water-Tube  Boiler. 

Another  means  of  securing  the  same  result  is  to  use  a  burner  which 
throws  the  flame  down  instead  of  forward.  Fig.  45  shows  the  Wilgus 
burner  thus  applied  to  a  Stirling  boiler. 


Fig.  45.     Down  Flame  Burner,  Water-Tube  Boiler. 


Still  another  method,  though  not  by  any  means  of  universal  applica- 
bility, is  to  place  the  burner  in  the  back  of  the  firebox,  directing  the 
flame  to  the  front.  The  possibility  of  so  placing  the  burner  will  depend 
on  the  arrangement  of  the  rear  portion  of  the  boiler;  at  the  best  the 


148 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


iinproveniont  is  slight.     Fig.  46  shows  this  arrangement  applied  to  a 
Babcock  ct  ^^'ilcox  boiler. 

Boiler  Trials. — The  tests  summarized  in  Tables  20  and  21  below  ' 
were  made  by  the  Pacific  Light  and  Power  Company,  at  Los  Angeles, 
in  December,  1903,  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  consisting  of 
Prof.  C.  L.  Cory  of  the  University  of  California,  Mr.  H.  M.  Boon  rep- 
resenting the  Stirling  Boiler  Company,  and  Mr.  E.  H.  Peabody  repre- 
senting the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company.     The  circumstances  under 


Fig.  46.     Reversed  Flame  Burner  Setting,  Water-Tube  Boiler. 

which  these  tests  were  made  render  it  certain   that   the  figures   are 
dependable  in  every  particular. 

The  last  test  with  each  boiler  was  intended  as  a  capacity  test,  and  to 
reach  so  high  a  rate  of  evaporation  as  7  pounds  per  square-foot  hour  it 
is  necessary  to  sacrifice  some  essentials  to  the  highest  efficiency.  Yet 
it  may  be  pointed  out  that  on  both  trials  the  efficiency  was  over  75% 
at  a  rate  of  4^  pounds,  and  nearly  75%  at  a  rate  of  5|  pounds  per 
square-foot  hour.  Also,  that  these  results  were  obtained  with  natural 
draft,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  service,  and  may  be  duplicated  in 
every-day  work,  if  proper  care  be  taken  of  apparatus  and  under 
ordinarily  favorable  conditions. 

1  Courtesy  of  Chas.  C.  Moore  it  Co.,  San  Francisco. 


LIQUID    FUEL    ON    STEAMSHIPS. 


149 


TABLE  20.     BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  WATER-TUBE  BOILER. 


Heating  surfaco — 4774. (i  sijuare  feet. 

Rated  capacity— Builders'  rating,  467  H.  P.;  Coniniittee'is  rating,  477  H.  P 

Oils  used — 

December    4 — Whittier  crude,  lit". 

December    8 — Mixture  Whittier  and  Los  Angeles  crudes,  17°. 

December  16 — Mixture  Whittier  and  Los  Angeles  crudes,  15^°. 

December  21 — Whittier  crude,  19°. 


Dec.  4. 


Dec.  8.       Dec.  16. 


Dec.  21. 


Duration  of  test hrs. 

Steam  pressure lbs. 

Temperature  of  feed  water °F. 

Factor  of  evaporation 

Pressure  of  oil lbs. 

Temperature  of  oil °F. 

Temperature  of  air  in  fire-room °F. 

Temperature  of  escaping  gases °F. 

(  In  flue,  outside  damper ins. 

Draft -{    Near  damper,  boiler  side his. 

[  In  furnace ins. 

Moisture  in  steam % 

Total  water  apparently  evaporated lbs. 

Corrected  for  moisture  in  steam lbs. 

Total  water  from  and  at  212°  F lbs. 

Water  per  hour  from  and  at  212°  F lbs. 

f  Per  hour lbs. 

Steam  used  by  burners -j  Per  pound  t)f  oil  .lbs. 

I  Of  steam  generated  _% 

Specific  gravity  of  oil  used 

Gravity  by  Beaume  scale °Be. 

Moisture  in  oil % 

Heat  value  of  oil  as  fired B.  T.  U. 

Heat  value  of  dry  oil B.  T.  U. 

Total  oil,  as  fired lbs. 

Total  oil,  water  deducted Ihs. 

Oil  per  hour,  as  fired lbs. 

Oil  i)er  hour,  corrected lbs. 

Evaporation  per  hour  per  square  foot  heating 
surface,  212°  F lbs. 

Horsepower  developed  

Per  cent  above  rated  power — 

Committee's  rating % 

Builder's  rating .. % 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212°  per  jiound 
of  oil — 

Oil  as  fired lbs. 

Oil  corrected  for  water lbs. 

Etficiency  .  .. 


10 

156.4 

62.65 

1.2050 

36 

109 

87 

438 


—.08 

—.02 

0.21 

152,850 

152,529 

183,797 

18,380 

342.6 

0.295 

l.t)6 

.9417 

19.05 

L06 

18,428 

18,626 

11,597 

11,475 

1,160 

1,147 

3.85 
523.7 

11.69 
14.08 


15.849 
16.02 
83.06 


10 

156.2 

62.54 

1.2051 

50 

124 

94 

464 


—.15 

—.04 

0.14 

179,233 

178,982 

215,691 

21,569 

479.8 

0.332 

2.33 

.9529 

17.18 

4.62 

17,887 

18,754 

14,442 

13,774 

1,444 

1,377 

4.52 
625.2 

31.07 
33.87 


14.936 
15.66 
80.64 


10 

156.9 

61.10 

1.2067 

46 

132 

100 

525 


—.29 

—.12 

0.16 

232,113 

231,742 

279,643 

27,964 

604.0 

0.300 

2.27 

.9637 

15.48 

8.71 

16,905 

18,518 

20,127 

18,374 

2,013 

1,837 

5.86 
810.6 

69.93 
73.57 


13.894 
15.22 
79.37 


10 

157.3 

60.92 

1.2070 

55 

111 

103 

622 

—.49 

—.49 

—.15 

0.14 

281,630 

281,236 

339,452 

33,945 

688.0 

0.290 

2.13 

.9407 

19.22 

0.42 

18,579 

18,657 

23,966 

23,866 

2,397 

2,.387 

7.11 
983.9 

1(16.27 
110.69 


14.164 
14.22 
73.62 


150 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


TABLE  21.     STIRLING  WATER-TUBE  BOILER. 

Heatiiif;;  surface — 3287. K  wiuare  feet. 
Rated  capacitj — 329  H.  P. 
Oils  used — 

December    .5 — Whittier  crude,  19°. 

December    7 — Mixture  Whittier  aud  Los  Angeles  crudes,  17°. 

December  17 — Mixture  Whittier  and  Los  Angeles  crudes,  15J°. 

December  19 — Whittier  crude,  19°. 


Dec.  5. 


Dec,  7. 


Dec.  17. 


Duration  of  test hrs. 

Steam  pressure lbs. 

Temperature  of  feed  water °F. 

Factor  of  evaporation 

Pressure  of  oil lbs. 

Temperature  of  oil °F. 

Temperature  of  air  in  fire-room °F. 

Temperature  of  escaping  gases °F. 

I    In  flue,  outside  damper ins. 

Draft \   Near  damper,  boiler  side ins. 

[  In  furnace ins. 

Moisture  in  steam % 

Total  water  apparently  evaporated Ib.'f. 

Corrected  for  moisture  in  steam /6.s\ 

Total  water  from  and  at  212°  F lbs. 

Water  per  hour  from  and  at  212°  F lbs. 

fPerhour lbs. 

Steam  used  by  burners  \  Per  pound  of  oil  -lbs. 

[  Of  steam  generated_% 

Specific  gravity  of  oil  used 

Gravity  by  Beaum4  scale °Be. 

Moisture  in  oil % 

Heat  value  of  oil  as  fired B.  T.  U. 

Heat  value  of  dry  oil B.  T.  U. 

Total  oil,  as  fired lbs. 

Total  oil,  water  deducted lbs. 

Oil  per  hour,  as  fired lbs. 

Oil  per  hovir ,  corrected lbs. 

Evaporation  per  hour  per  square  foot  heating 
surface,  212°  F lbs. 

Horsepower  developed 

Per  cent  above  rated  j^ower — 

Committee's  rating % 

Builder's  rating % 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212°  per  pound 
of  oil — 

Oil  as  fired lbs. 

Oil  corrected  for  water lbs. 

Efficiency % 


10 

156.0 

63.65 

1.2039 

25 

88 

95 

454 


—.14 

—.09 

0.56 

98,272 

97,772 

117,648 

11,765 

383.7 

0.499 

3.42 

.9430 

18.83 

1.06 

18,479 

18,677 

7,764 

7,682 

776 


3.58 
341.0 


3.65 
1.79 


15.153 
15.31 
79.16 


10 

156.4 

63.70 

1.2039 

32 

85 

100 

517 


—.20 

—.15 

0.52 

124,896 

124,247 

149,581 

14,958 

387.7 

0.369 

2.72 

.9530 

17.17 

4.93 

17,791 

18,714 

10,577 

10,056 

1,058 

1,006 

4.55 
433.6 

31.78 
29.42 


14.142 
14.87 
76.73 


10 

157.0 

62.00 

1.2058 

63 

128 

101 

606 


—.25 

—.13 

0.58 

155,682 

154,779 

186,633 

18,663 

444.4 

0.310 

2.50 

.9629 

15.60 

8.82 

16,956 

18,596 

14,361 

13,095 

1,436 

l,30i) 

5.68 
541.0 

64.43 
61.48 


12.995 
14.26 
74.05 


MINOR    USES    OF    FUEL    OIL.  151 

CHAPTER  12. 

MINOR  USES  OF  FUEL   OIL. 

By  far  the  larger  part,  })r()bal)ly  not  li'ss  than  ninety  per  cent,  of 
the  petroleum  used  for  fuel  is  consumed  in  the  generation  of  steam,  on 
land  or  water.  Yet  the  prospective  importance  of  some  of  the  lesser 
known  uses  of  fuel  oil  is  very  great,  not  only  from  the  standpoint  of 
possible  increase  in  oil  consumption,  but  also  from  that  of  the  cheap- 
ening of  manufacturing  })rocesses,  and  the  consequent  encouragement 
of  industry. 

California  is  renowned  as  a  producer  of  ores  of  the  precious  metals, 
many  of  these  ores  being  sulphuretted  and  requiring  to  be  smelted. 
Every  reduction,  even  the  most  trivial,  in  the  cost  of  smelting,  makes 
it  possible  for  the  smelter  to  purchase  ores  of  a  lower  grade,  to  the 
direct  advantage  of  the  mining  industry. 

The  Pacific  Coast  has  great  stores  of  iron  ores  which,  on  account  of 
the  high  cost  of  (imported)  coke,  can  not  be  reduced  at  a  profit,  even 
though  the  local  price  of  iron  is  high  and  the  demand  good.  Much 
labor  and  thought  have  been  devoted  to  search  for  a  method  of  smelt- 
ing iron  ores  by  means  of  oil,  without  the  use  of  coke  or  charcoal,  and 
while  it  is  probable  that  no  thoroughly  satisfactory  method  has  yet 
been  devised,  a  solution  of  the  problem  would  be  of  immense  impor- 
tance to  the  iron-using  industries  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

In  the  iron  trades,  oil  finds  considerable  use,  in  ways  which  are  often 
curious  and  interesting  rather  than  important,  except  in  a  minor  way. 
Some  of  the  applications  show  very  clearly  the  wide  range  of  use  to 
which  fuel  oil  is  suited,  and  its  adaptability  to  unusual  and  difficult 
conditions. 

In  glass-making,  and  in  thu  manufacture  of  brick  and  tile,  both  grow- 
ing industries  on  this  coast,  the  use  of  oil  is  extended  and  rapidly 
widening.  Liquid  fuel  has  practically  made  possible  the  manufacture 
of  brick  in  the  interior  valleys,  where  wood  is  scarce  and  the  cost  of 
coal  almost  prohibitive.  The  successful  use  of  oil  in  these  industries 
indicates  the  high  temperatures  which  may  readily  be  had  with  oil  fuel, 
and  the  close  regulation  of  which  it  is  capable. 

Copper  Smelting".  — Crude  oil  fuel  is  used  in  copper  smelting,  where 
gold  and  silver  are  recovered,  in  the  entire  series  of  operations,  from 
roasting  the  ore  to  melting  the  tine  silver,  except  in  the  blast  furnace 
and  in  melting  the  fine  gold.  The  following  paragraphs  are  taken  (by 
permission)  from  an  address  delivered  by  Mr.  Alfred  von  der  Ropp, 
Superintendent  of  the  Selby  Smelting  and  Lead  Company's  works, 
before  the  California  Miners'  Association,  in  November,  1902: 


152  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"  *  *  *  Fuel  oil  for  the  generation  of  steam  is  not  my  subject, 
^'  and  you  are  no  doul)t  familiar  with  this  pr<)})lem.  However,  let  me 
*' state  to  you,  that  at  the  8elby  Smelting  and  Lead  Company's  Avorks 
*'  we  use  liquid  fuel  exclusively  for  the  generation  of  steam,  in  Stirling 
''  water-tube  boilers,  rated  at  250  and  290  horsepower  respectively. 
^'  We  burn  an  oil  of  from  26°  to  27°  gravity,  and  evaporate,  per  pound 
*'  of  oil,  14-^  to  15  pounds  of  water,  from  and  at  212°  F.  This  gives  you 
^'  a  basis  to  figure  the  comparative  value  of  oil  with  coal  as  a  steam 
"  generator.  Another  w^ay  of  getting  at  the  comparative  values  of  liquid 
*' fuel  and  coal  is  the  following:  In  a  large  matting  furnace  of  the 
*'  reverberatory  type,  it  is  considered  that  one  ton  of  coal  should  smelt 
*'  about  three  and  one  half  tons  of  ore.  I  find  that  in  the  same  matting 
"  furnace  at  Selby  I  can  smelt  one  ton  of  ore  with  one  V)arrel  of  oil;  this 
*'  would  give  us  three  and  one  half  barrels  of  oil  to  three  and  one  half 
"tons  of  ore;  or,  in  other  words,  three  and  one  half  barrels  of  oil  are 
"  equal  to  one  ton  of  coal.  One  ton  of  good  coal  is  worth  today,  in 
"  San  Francisco,  we  will  say.  $6.  This  means  that  one  barrel  of 
*' oil  at  $1.71,  or  three  and  one  half  barrels  at  $6,  would  be  equal  in 
"effective  value  to  one  ton  of  coal  at  $6;  and  you  all  know  that  good 
"  fuel  oil  can  be  bought  today  in  San  Francisco  for  one  half  of  $1.71 
*'  per  barrel,  and  even  less.  In  other  words,  you  can  save  50%  and 
"  more  by  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  under  the  prevailing  conditions  and 
"  prices  for  coal  and  oil. 

"  I  wish  to  mention  right  now  that  I  am  not  interested  in  any  oil 
*'  wells  or  oil  stocks,  and  am  not  attempting  to  boom  liquid  fuel. 

''The  following  metallurgical  furnaces  use  crude  oil  at  our  works  at 
"Selby:  four  roasting  furnaces,  with  a  total  of  eleven  burners;  one 
"matting  furnace,  with  three  burners;  one  copper  furnace,  with  one 
"  burner;  fourteen  lead  furnaces,  with  fourteen  burners;  thirteen  zinc 
"  retorts,  with  thirteen  burners;  three  cupel  furnaces,  with  three  burners; 
"one  antimony  furnace,  with  one  burner;  one  furnace  for  melting 
"  fine  silver,  with  one  burner.     Total,  forty-seven. 

"  In  all  these  furnaces,  the  use  of  crude  oil  has  brought  about  a 
"  saving  of  from  40%  to  60%  in  the  cost  of  fuel  over  coal.  And  this 
"  does  not  represent  all  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  liquid 
"  fuel  in  metallurgical  establishments. 

"  Let  me  quote  you  a  few  simple  chemical  reactions  that  you  all  are 
"  more  or  less  familiar  with,  and  which  are  of  vital  importance  to  all 
"  metallurgical  institutions. 

"  In  the  process  of  oxidizing  sulphid  ores,  commonly  called  roasting 
"  or  desulphurizing,  it  is  necessary  that  the  atmosphere  in  the  roasting 
"  furnace  should  contain  as  much  free  oxygen  as  possible,  to  enable  the 
"  sulphur  in  the  raw  material  to  oxidize  or  burn  off  in  the  shape  of 
"sulphur  dioxid  (SO2)   and  sulphur  trioxid  (S0«).     In  using  coal  as 


MINOR    USES    OF    FUEL   OIL.  153 

fuel  it  is  impossible  to  maintain  this  oxidizing  atnK)S])li('re  all  the 
time,  because  every  time  that  fresh  fuel  is  fed  to  the  firebox,  black 
gases  can  be  seen  to  fill  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  and  during  this 
period  of  incomplete  combustion  the  process  of  roasting,  or  oxidizing, 
is  completely  at  a  standstill.  What  happens  ?  A  certain  amount  of 
fuel  and  time  is  wasted,  and  nothing  is  accomplished. 

"  NoAv  look  at  the  ideal  conditions  prevailing  in  the  roasting  furnace 
when  liquid  fuel  is  used.  Once  the  flame  is  regulated  by  properly 
adjusting  the  oil  and  steam  inlets,  we  have  a  clear  flame,  with  not  a 
trace  of  soot  in  the  roasting  chamber;  and  this  ideal  condition  con- 
tinues for  twenty-four  hours  per  day,  enabling  the  sulphur  in  the  ores 
to  combine  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air  during  every  fraction  of  a 
second.  This  means  that  we  can  crowd  a  roasting  furnace  using  oil 
far  beyond  the  capacity  of  a  furnace  using  coal,  and  still  we  can 
produce  a  good  end  roast  with  the  same  per  cent  of  sulphur  remain- 
ing. This  means  that  we  can  reduce  the  cost  of  fuel,  labor,  and 
repairs  per  ton  of  ore  treated.  Tn  all  metallurgical  furnaces  where 
the  aim  is  to  oxidize,  these  same  benefits  are  to  be  derived  from  the 
use  of  liquid  fuel.  I  quote  you,  for  instance,  the  cupel  furnace,  where 
the  lead  is  oxidized  to  litharge,  leaving  the  gold  and  silver  on  the 
hearth,  or  test,  as  dore  silver. 

''  But  let  me  mention  the  matting  furnace,  of  the  reverberatory  type. 
In  this  furnace  the  roasted  ore  is  subjected  to  a  white  heat  to  produce 
a  quick  sintering  and  melting  down  of  the  charge.  The  aim  in  this 
furnace  is  to  produce,  first:  'a  copper-iron  matte,  which  acts  as  an 
accumulator  for  the  precious  metals';  and,  secondly,  'a  slag  which 
is  formed  from  the  earthy  components  of  the  ore.'  As  matte  is  a  com- 
pound of  sulphur  and  the  heavy  metals  (mainly  copper  sulphid  and 
iron  sulphid)  in  fixed  proportions,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  per  cent 
(tf  copper  in  the  matte  depends  on  the  amount  of  sulphur  remaining 
in  the  charge. 

"  Suppose,  now,  that  we  use  coal  as  fuel  in  the  matting  furnace.  We 
will  have  a  reducing  atmosphere  whenever  the  fireman  gets  busy  and 
fills  the  grate  with  fresh  fuel,  thus  producing  an  incom})lete  combus- 
tion for  a  certain  length  of  time.  During  this  period  no  sulphur  can 
be  oxidized  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  With  oil  we  have  an  oxidizing 
atmosphere  during  every  second,  and  consequently  we  find  that  we 
produce  a  higher  grade  copper  matte  in  a  furnace  using  liquid  fuel 
than  we  can  possibly  produce  in  a  furnace  using  coal.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  it  should  be  desirable  to  have  the  reducing  atmosphere  in 
metallurgical  work,  it  is  easy  to  change  from  an  oxidizing  atmosphere 
to  a  reducing  one  in  an  instant,  by  either  choking  the  air  inlet  to  the 
furnace,  or  increasing  the  flow  of  oil  to  the  burner.  *         *         * 

"  As  the  dimensions  of"  metallurgical  furnaces  are  variable  ones,  you 


154 

"  will  readily  understand 
"  that  we  need  flames  of 
"  many  different  sizes  for 
"  our  metallurgical  tools. 
"  For  instance,  at  Selby, 
"  the  extreme  lengths  of 
"  flames  used  are  8"  and 
"  6'.  In  the  zinc  retorts, 
"  which  are  our  smallest 
"  furnaces,  we  need  a 
"flame  of  8".  In  the 
"  large  matting  furnace, 
"35'xl6'  in  the  clear, 
"  we  need  a  flame  of  6' 
"  or  even  more  in  length. 
"  The  burner  has  to  be 
"  adapted  to  the  furnace, 
"  and  to  the  work  to  be 
"  performed.  Hence,  you 
"  will  find  at  metallurgi- 
"  cal  establishments  a 
"  great  variety  of  burn- 
"  ers,  or  at  least  a  great 
"  variety  of  sizes  of  burn- 
"  ers,  and  I  know  of  no 
"  better  all-round  burner 
"  than  the  one  formed  of 
"  two  concentric  pipes, 
"the  smaller  one  being 
"  the  oil  pipe,  and  the 
"  larger  one  the  steam 
"  carrier.  By  this  ar- 
"  rangement  the  oil  pipe 
"is  steam  jacketed,  and 
"  the  temperature  of  the 
"  oil  is  raised  to  such  a 
"  degree  that  its  fluidity 
"  is  very  much  increased 
"  and  part  of  the  lighter 
"  oils  become  gases.  All 
"  this  tends  to  break  up 
"  more  or  less  the  viscous 
"  oil  into  minute  parti- 
"  cles,  which  ignite  read- 


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MINOR    USES    OF    FUEL    OIL. 


155 


"ily  when  brought  into  contact  with  tlie  oxygen  of  the  surrounding 
"  atmosphere. 

a*  *  *  During  the  last  few  years  I  have  been  repeatedly 
"  approached  by  parties  asking  me  why  I  do  not  use  oil  in  the  blast 
*'  furnace,  and  the  only  answer  I  can  give  them  is  the  following  :  Solid 
"  carbon  plays  a  very  important  role,  especially  in  the  upper  level  of 
"  the  blast  furnace  shaft.  Its  function,  especially  with  the  fine  ores,  is 
"  largely  to  limber  up  the  charge  and  allow  the  flow  of  gases  to  pene- 
"trate  the  charge  evenly;  besides,  incandescent  carbon  has  certain 
"  functions  to  perform  in  the  blast  furnace,  which  are  of  a  chemical 
"  nature,  and  which  need  not  be  discussed  in  this  paper.  If  coke  or 
"  charcoal  should  be  entirely  replaced  by  oil  in  the  blast  furnace,  the 
"  blast  furnace  charge  would  very  likely  become  too  dense  to  allow  the 
"combustion  gases  to  escape  freely.  Besides,  it  seems  to  me,  there 
"  would  be  considerable  danger  from  explosions  if  oil  should  be  used  as 
"  fuel  in  blast  furnaces.  However,  I  think  it  may  be  possible  to  replace 
*'  part  of  the  solid  carbon  fuel  with  liquid  fuel,  but  I  am  not  prepared 
*'  to  state  at  this  time  what  percentage  of  liquid  fuel  could  be  used,  or 
*'  what  mechanical  arrangements  should  be  introduced  for  the  use  of 
"  liquid  fuel  in  the  blast  furnaces." 

The  structural  arrangements  of  metallurgical  furnaces  burning  oil 
are,  in  general,  very  similar  to  what  would  be  needed  for  solid  fuel. 
The  grates,  etc.,  are  of  course  dispensed  with,  and  the  burners  intro- 
duced at  points  where  flame  is  needed.  A  large  number  of  burners  of 
different  types  have  been  tried  at  Selby,  but  those  now  in  use  are  of 
very  simple  construction,  and  give  the  most  excellent  results.  In  Fig. 
48  is  shown  a  sectional  view  of  this  burner.  It  should  be  pointed  out 
that  a  light  oil,  such  as  used  at  Selby,  in  a  very  hot  furnace,  gives 
better  results  in  so  simple  a  burner  than  would  a  heavier  oil  in  a 
smaller  and  cooler  boiler  firebox. 

Glass-Making-.— Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Edward  Abramson, 
president  of  the  Illinois-Pacific  Glass  Company,  a  representative  of  the 
Mining  Bureau  was  permitted  to  see  the  application  of  fuel  oil  to  the 
manufacture  of  glassware  at  that  company's  plant,  where  white,  flint, 
and  aml)er  bottles  and  flint  demijohns  and  fruit  jars  are  manufactured. 

The  operations  of  bottle-making  are  simple  enough  in  theory,  though 
requiring  great  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman.  The  raw  materials 
for  the  glass  (principally  a  California  sand)  are  mixed  dry,  and  charged 
into  a  melting  furnace.  From  the  melting  chamber  the  semi-liquid 
melt  runs  into  another  chamber,  from  which  it  is  withdrawn,  at  the 
working  holes,  in  the  form  of  a  stiffly  viscous  paste.  This  paste,  as  is 
Avell  known,  is  handled  on  the  ends  of  iron  rods  or  tubes,  and  in  mak- 
ing machine  bottles  and  jars,  dropped  into  the  mold,  where  it  is  pressed, 
blown,  and  shaped  by  practically  automatic  machinery. 


156 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Bottles,  after  being  formed  in  the  mold,  have  the  neck  shaped  in  a 
separate  operation.  For  this  purpose  the  necks  are  reheated  to  redness 
in  a  small  furnace  known  as  a  "  glory  hole."  The  shaping  being  fin- 
ished, the  bottles  pass  to  the  annealing  leahrs,  where  they  are  subjected 


Fig.  49.     Glass  Furnace,  Burning  Oil— Plan. 

to  a  mild  heat,  about  1200°  F.,  for  several  hours,  then  allowed  to  cool 
very  slowly,  sorted  and  packed. 

The  glass  furnaces  vary  in  size,  but  approximate  the  proportions 
shown  in  Figs.  49  and  50.  The  raw  materials  are  charged  through  the 
door  a  onto  the  floor  of  the  furnace,  the  use  of  melting  pots  being  un- 
necessary w^here  oil  is  used 


for  fuel.  The  burner ^ 
ranged  along  the  outer 
edge  of  crown  throw  the 
flame  through  small  holes 
directly  on  the  sand,  which 
melts  at  a  dazzling  whitt- 
heat,  the  glass  thus  formed 
running  through  the  nar- 
row slot  e  into  the  collect- 
ing chamber  c,  where  it  i~ 
kept  at  proper  temperature  by  the  burner  atf  in  center  of  crown. 

At  the  sides  of  the  melting  chamber  are  the  air-heaters,  brick  boxes 
filled  to  a  varying  depth  with  a  checker  work  of  fire-brick.  The  air  for 
combustion  passes  up  through  one  box,  through  the  melting  chamber, 
and  down  through  the  other  box  to  the  stack.  In  this  operation  the 
inlet  heater  is  cooled,  while  the  outlet  heater  is  raised  to  a  very  high 


Fig.  50.     Glass  Furnace — Cross-section. 


MINOR    USKS   OF    FUEL    OIL.  157 

temperature  by  the  tire  gases  from  the  melting  chamber.  At  the  end 
of  an  hour's  run  the  order  is  reversed  by  means  of  a  valve  near  the 
stack,  the  air  now  passing  uj)  through  the  heated  box,  the  previously 
cooled  box  being  again  heated.  In  this  way  the  air  supplied  for  com- 
bustion in  the  melting  chamber  is  always  highly  heated. 

The  effect  of  these  checkers,  however,  is  to  greatly  obstruct  the  draft, 
and  that  so  rich  a  fuel  as  oil  can  be  used  under  such  circumstances 
shows  its  great  adaptability  to  diilicult  conditions.  In  forcing  a  fur- 
nace of  this  kind,  the  pressure  on  the  melting  chamber  is  outward,  the 
flame  streaming  out  from  every  opening.  Yet  the  consumption  of  the 
large  amount  of  fuel  required  is  effected  without  the  formation  of 
smoke  or  of  noxious  gases,  the  flame  being  perfectly  clear  and  of  great 
brilliancy.  The  advantages  gained  in  this  use  of  oil  are  numerous: 
saving  in  labor,  and  in  wear  and  tear  on  furnaces,  the  operation  becom- 
ing practically  continuous,  the  removal  of  the  expensive  and  fragile 
melting  pots,  ready  and  complete  control  over  heats,  and  economy  in 
cost  of  fuel. 

The  "  glory  holes  *'  are  small  cubical  l)oxes,  about  12"  in  each  dimen- 
sion inside,  a  small  opening  being  left  in  the  walls,  which  are  one 
thickness  of  fire-brick,  near  the  bottom  at  each  end.  The  flame  enters 
through  a  hole  in  the  top,  strikes  the  bottom,  and  is  discharged  at  the 
ends.  These  very  small  furnaces  run  at  a  low  white  heat,  with  great 
steadiness,  and  with  very  little  noise. 

The  annealing  leahrs  are  low,  flat  furnaces,  the  firebox  being  at  the 
side,  and  the  flame  passing  up  throvigh  a  flue  and  down  onto  the  Avare 
on  the  furnace  floor.  The  most  notable  feature  in  connection  with 
these  furnaces  is,  that  though  run  at  a  comparatively  low  heat,  the 
bottles  when  removed  after  thirty-six  hours'  exposure  to  the  fire  gases 
are  quite  clean  except  for  a  slight  cloudy  film,  showing  that  the  oil  is 
completely  burned.  This  cloud,  which  is  readily  removed  by  wiping  or 
by  water,  is  of  unknown  composition,  but  from  its  white  color  when 
rubbed  onto  a  dark  surface,  can  not  be  soot.  It  may  be  due  to  deposi- 
tion of  sulphur-carrying  compounds  from  the  fire  gases  at  the  end  of  the 
heat,  or  more  likely,  from  its  salty  taste,  to  the  traces  of  salt  always 
found  in  water  accompanying  crude  oil.  The  cleanliness  of  the 
annealed  ware  shows  very  plainlv  the  perfection  of  combustion,  wliich 
is  rather  remarkable  considering  the  low  temperature  and  the  length 
of  time  during  which  the  glass  is  exposed  to  direct  contact  with  the 
fire  gases. 

The  oil-burning  plant  at  this  works  consists  of:  four  melting  fur- 
naces, with  thirty-six  burners;  nineteen  annealing  leahrs,  with  thirty- 
five  burners;  fifteen  "glory  holes,"  with  fifteen  burners;  one  sand  drier, 
with  one  burner;  three  boilers,  with  three  burners.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  those  under  the  boilers,  all  the  burners  use  air  for  injection. 


158 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Brick  Kiln — Ground  plan. 


unci  are  of  the  outside  mixing  tubular  type,  manufactured  by  the  Cox 
<fe  Sons  Co.,  Bridgeport,  N.  J.  They  are  set  from  ^"  to  3"  above  the 
holes  through  which  flame  passes,  thus  inducing  considerable  draft. 
Air  is  used  cold,  pressure  seventeen  pounds  at  receiver;  the  oil  used  is 
20°  gravity,  pumped  cold,  pressure  thirty-five  pounds  at  pump. 

Brick-Burning'. — Through  the 
courtesy  of  N.  Clark  &  Son,  a 
representative  of  the  Mining  Bu- 
reau was  permitted  to  examine 
the  oil  installation  at  their  plant 
in  West  Alameda.  At  this  fac- 
tory fire-brick  and  sewer-pipe  are 
JtI  burned  in  down-draft  kilns,  and 
terra-cotta  goods  in  muffle  kilns. 
A  clown-draft  kiln  is  of  the  gen- 
eral construction  shown  in  Figs. 
51  and  52.  The  flame  from  the 
burners  enters  the  fireboxes, 
evenly  spaced  around  the  circum- 
ference of  the  kiln,  passing  into 
the  "bag,"  a  closed  flue  having 
the  double  object  of  protecting  the  goods  nearest  the  firebox  from  the 
direct  action  of  the  flame,  and  of  forcing  the  heat  to  the  top  of  the  kiln, 
so  that  it  may  pass  down  through  the  entire  charge,  instead  of  short- 
cutting  to  the  flue.  The  latter  is  at  the  bottom  of  kiln,  and  communi- 
cates with  stack  by  an  under- 
ground passage. 

In  starting  a  freshly  charged 
kiln,  it  is  necessary  to  fire  very 
gently  for  several  hours,  as  other- 
wise the  product  would  be  checked 
and  spoiled  by  unequal  expansion. 
The  greatest  difficulty  in  oil-firing 
occurs  here;  the  firebox  being 
completely  cold  and  heating  up 
very  slowly,  it  is  impossible  to 
make  the  burners  carry  a  steady 

flame  when  turned  down  as  low  as  is  necessary.  To  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty, the  bottom  of  the  firebox  is  formed  into  a  drip  pan,  into  which 
oil  is  allowed  to  flow  slowly,  burning  in  the  pan.  The  gentle  heat 
desired  is  thus  obtained,  and  the  inevitable  soot  deposited  on  the  goods 
quickly  burns  off  at  a'higher  heat.  When  the  firebox  becomes  sufficiently 
hot  the  burner  proper  is  lighted,  and  the  fire  is  then  under  perfect 
control.  No  difficulty  is  experienced  in  burning  any  quantity  of  oil 
desired,  nor  in  obtaining  the  necessary  degree  of  heat. 


Fig. 


Brick  Kiln,  Down  Draft,  Eudaly 
Pattern — Vertical  section. 


MINOR    USES    OF    FUEL   OIL.  1 -"^^ 

The  burner  is  of  the  smiplest  construction,  being  formed  of  two  con- 
centric tubes  of  6"  length,  the  inner  ^",  the  outer  f  pipe,  both  drawn 
in  shghtly  at  the  end.  Oil  of  17°  gravity  is  used  cold  or  very  slightly 
warmed,  at  forty  pounds  pressure,  steam  at  ninety  pounds.  Attempts 
to  use  very  heavy  oil  proved  unsatisfactory,  on  account  of  lack  of  regu- 
lation, and  heating  of  oil  was  abandoned  because  of  the  distance  to 
which  oil  had  to  be  pumped.  It  was  found  that  the  flow  of  heated  oil 
varied  greatly  with  slight  differences  of  temperature,  and  that  the  pipes 
were  likely  to  chill  and  shut  off  burner  without  warning. 

Oil  is  used,  at  this  plant,  on  ten  down-draft  and  three  muffle  kilns, 
with  a  total  of  over  one  hundred  burners,  and  gives  the  greatest  satis- 
faction. 

Pile  Protection.— A  rather  curious  use  to  which  petroleum  has  been 
put  is  the  coating  of  piles  to  preserve  them  from  the  attacks  of  lim- 
noria.  The  general  idea  is  by  no  means  new,  coal  tar,  asphalt,  petro- 
leum, and  various  paints  and  compounds  having  been  in  use  for  many 
years  as  pile  preservatives,  but  the  method  of  Mr.  A.  S.  Cooper 
(Limnoriacide  Company)  below  described  is,  so  far  as  known,  entirely 
different  from  anything  of  the  kind  Ijefore  used: 

•'  The  following  described  patented  invention  is  for  the  destruction  of 
"  limnoria  and  other  marine  bugs,  worms,  and  insects  and  vegetation 
"  infesting  and  growing  on  wooden  bridges,  jetties,  piles,  harbor  works> 
'■  etc..  and  the  future  protection  and  preservation  of  these  structures. 

"A  wharf  or  other  structure  to  be  treated,  is  surrounded  by  a  float- 
•'  ing  dam.  Within  this  dam  is  a  suitable  noxious  substance  of  a  specific 
"  gravity  less  than  water,  so  that  it  will  float  upon  the  water.  The 
"  escape  of  this  substance  is  prevented  by  the  floating  dam.  The  dam 
■'  and  noxious  substance  are  raised  and  lowered  by  the  tides  and  waves, 
■■  bringing  the  substance  into  contact  with  the  piles  or  other  structure, 
"  thereby  killing  all  life  and  protecting  these  structures  from  the  com- 
"  ing  of  other  worms,  bugs  and  insects,  and  vegetation. 

"  Good  noxious  substances  are  crude,  heavy,  California  petroleum 
"  oil,  which  usually  contains  from  30%  to  40%  of  asphaltum,  or  asphal- 
'•  tum  dissolved  in  a  distillate.  The  volatile  parts  of  the  heavy 
"  petroleum  or  solution  of  asphaltum  and  a  distillate,  when  spread  on  a 
"pile  or  other  structure,  gradually  evaporate,  leaving  a  coating  of  very 
"  viscous  li([uid  asphaltum.  which  adlieres  to  the  pile  or  other  structure 
"  with  great  tenacity. 

"  Poisonous  materials  may  l)e  added  to  oil  or  the  solution,  such  as 
"  creosote  or  carbolic  acid,  etc. 

"  Fig.  53  is  a  view  of  a  wharf  showing  the  floating  body  of  noxious 
"  material  and  the  floating  dam  conflning  it  about  all  the  piles  of 
"  the  wharf.  AA  is  a  wharf,  the  piles  of  which  are  surrounded  by  a 
"  floating  frame  BB,  which  serves  as  a  dam,  to  confine  the  floating  sub- 

11  — BUL.    32 


160 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


"stance,  represented  by  BD,  so  that  the  said  substance  covering  the 
"  water  with  a  thin  layer  remains  in  contact  with  the  piles. 

"  In  Fig.  53  high  water  is  indicated  by  the  hne  CC.     It  will  readily  be 
"seen  that  by  the  constant  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  and  the  ceaseless] 
"  action  of  the  waves,  the  layer  of  petroleum  oil  confined  by  the  float-  : 
"  ing  dam  will  coat  the  piles  between  high-  and  low-water  marks,  being 
"  that  portion  which  sviffers  from  the  limnoria. 

"  The  dam  need  not  in  all  cases  surround  all  the  piles  as  a  whole,  for 
"  as  shown  at  G,  Fig.  53,  it  may  be  applied  about  each  single  pile. 

"  AAA   are   timber   floats    and    braces    held    in    position    by    being 
"  attached  to  half-circle  hoops   RB,  these  hoops  being  hinged  together  . 
"at   C.     Around  these  braces  and  lioojis  is  nailed  a  canvas  covering  j 
"  forming  a  canvas  cylin- 
"  der,  opening  at  D.    The 
"  cylinder  is  opened  and 
"  placed  around  the  pile 
"  to  be  coated,  and  then 
"  closed  and  tightly  laced 
"  together,   as   shown  at 
"  D,  or   it  can    be    laced 
"  with  a  double  string,  as 
"  a  shoe   is    laced.     The 
"  space  between  the  can- 
"  vas  and  the  pile  is  then 
"  tilled  with  noxious  ma-  ^^7=:^^' 
"  terial    of    less    specific  z=Z^ 
"gravity    than    water. 
"  The  floating  dam  and  ^ 
"  noxious    material    are  "^ 
"lowered  and  raised  l)y 
"the    tides    and    waves, 
"  coating  the  pile.     The 

"  necessary  amount  of  petrolcvun  oil  is  })lac('d  and  tl 
"  when  the  dam  is  changed,  by  a  large  syringe. 

"A  square  box  six  inches  deep,  without  top  or  bottom,  if  l)uilt  around 
"a  pile  and  left  free  to  float  up  and  down  with  the  tides,  makes  a  gixxl 
"  dam."       - 

The  creosoting  process,  many  years  in  use  for  the  j)Uri)osi'  of  ])r(- 
serving  wharf  and  other  timbers  fi'om  the  attacks  of  limnoria  and 
teredo,  and  from  decay,  consists  in  satm-ating  the  outer  layers  of 
wood  of  the  pile  with  heavy  oil  from  coal  tar.  The  piles  or  other  tim- 
bers, loaded  on  iron  cars,  are  run  into  a  i-ctort,  a  steel  tube  some  S'  to 
10'  in  diameter,  and  up  to  UO'  in  lengtli.  The  ends  of  this  tul)e  beiim 
closed  with   heavy   iron  doors,  clamped  on,  hot  oil  is   run   in,  and   tlir 


Fig.  o3. 


^urphis  rt'UioNH'd 


PETROLEUM    IN    GAS-MAKING.  161 

temperature  brought  to  the  boiling  point  of  the  sap.  The  water  vapor 
fr(Hn  the  wood  passes  through  a  condenser  to  the  vacuum  pump,  by 
wliich  a  high  vacuum  is  maintained  on  the  retort.  The  extraction  of 
sap  having  been  carried  to  the  proper  depth,  and  the  pores  of  the  wood 
thoroughly  opened  up  by  the  boiling  out  of  the  sap,  the  vacuum  is 
released,  the  retort  completely  filled  with  oil,  and  a  high  pressure 
applied  by  means  of  an  oil  pressure  pump.  Pressing  is  continued  until 
the  desired  amount  of  oil  has  been  forced  into  the  wood,  the  ligliter 
portions  of  the  oil  penetrating  deepest,  while  the  heaviest  part  remains 
as  a  hard  black  coating  on  the  surface. 

The  oil  consists  principally  of  neutral  hydrocarbons,  of  high  l>oiling 
})oint,  and  considerably  heavier  than  water,  but  contains  also  carbolic 
acid  and  other  phenols,  naphtha hnie,  anthracene,  and  a  number  of  otlier 
antiseptic  substances. 

This  treatment,  which  greatly  prolongs  the  life  of  the  pile,  acts  in 
two  ways:  Rot  is  prevented  by  the  antiseptic  elements  of  the  oil,  also, 
probaljly,  by  the  exclusion  of  air,  while  the  pile  is  protected  from  the 
action  of  marine  boring  insects  by  the  layer  of  densely  saturated  wood 
on  the  surface,  which  they  can  not  penetrate. 

The  creosoting  process  is  expensive,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of 
creosote  oil,  and  Dundon's  " Petro- Asphalt  Process"  (used  by  the  San 
Francisco  Timber  Preserving  Company)  aims  to  reduce  the  cost  by  sub- 
stituting heavy  crude  petroleum,  the  mechanical  part  of  the  treatment 
being  the  same.  The  lighter  portions  of  the  petroleum  penetrate  the 
wood,  while  a  hard  asphaltic  coating  is  left  on  the  outside.  The  anti- 
septic properties  of  the  creosote  are  largely  lacking,  but  the  coating 
offers  an  effective  protection  from  air  and  water,  and  from  attacks  of 
insects. 


CHAPTER  13. 
PETROLEUM  IN  GAS-MAKING. 

Petroleum  and  its  products  tind  extensive  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  and  this  use  has  been  enormously  increased  locally,  within  the 
last  few  years,  by  the  application  of  oil  to  gas-making  processes  whicli 
dij<pense  with  coal  or  coke.  While  gas  manufacture  has  only  an  indirect 
connection  with  the  oil  industry,  yet  the  consumption  of  petroleum  for 
this  purpose  is  now  so  large,  and  some  of  the  applications  so  original 
and  interesting,  that  a  brief  digression  to  this  subject  may  be  pardoned. 


162  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Illuminating  gas   may   be  made   by   dry   distillation   of  almost  all 
organic  substances,  and  in  the  past  gas  has  been  made  commercially 
from  various  fats  and  oils,  petroleum  products,  asphalt,  rosin  and  wood, 
but  aside  from  a  very  limited  use  of  wood,  gas  is  now  made  entirely  ; 
from  coal,  coke  or  anthracite  with  steam,  and  petroleum.  J 


Coal  Gas  is  made  by  distilling  bituminous  coal  in  fire-clay  retorts,  at 
red  to  yellow  heat.  The  retort  is  a  ^-shaped  box  of  hard-burned  fire- 
clay, some  3"  thick,  and  about  16"x22"xlO'  in  size.  Five,  six,  or  nine 
of  these  retorts  are  set  in  one  fireplace,  and  constitute  what  is  known 
as  a  "bench."  The  retorts  project  through  the  front  wall  of  the  setting, 
ending  in  an  iron  mouthpiece  which  is  closed  by  a  lid,  clamped  on  and 
luted  with  clay.  From  the  mouthpiece,  a  vertical  standpipe  conducts 
the  gas  into  the  "hydraulic  main,"  a  covered  trough,  where  the  stand- 
pipe  is  sealed  in  water  and  tar  from  the  retorts.  From  the  hydraulic 
main  the  gas  passes  to  the  condensers,  where  it  is  cooled  and  the  tar 
deposited,  and  finally  to  the  crude  gas  holder.  By  means  of  a  gas 
pump  or  exhauster  the  pressure  of  gas  on  the  retorts  is  balanced,  a  very 
slight  vacuum  being  sometimes  carried;  by  this  means  the  leakage  of 
gas  through  the  porous  walls  of  the  retort  is  prevented. 

From  the  crude  gas  holders,  the  gas  is  taken  to  the  purifiers,  where 
it  is  freed  from  sulphur  compounds  and  from  carbon  dioxid,  but  as  the 
purifying  systems  are  common  to  all  methods  of  gas  manufacture,  they 
need  not  be  described  here. 

The  retort  is  brought  to  the  heat  desired,  varying  from  cherry  red  to 
lemon  yellow,  and  is  then  charged  with  the  proper  amount  of  coal, 
perhaps  four  hundred  pounds.  The  lid  is  then  luted  and  clamped 
tight,  and  the  evolution  of  gas  commences.  The  heat  drives  off  the 
volatile  parts  of  the  coal,  which  swells  and  partly  fuses  (in  the  case  of 
a  true  coking  coal)  to  lumps  or  even  to  a  solid  mass,  leaving  finally  a 
residue  of  dry  carbon,  or  coke.  The  proper  time  of  heating,  about  four 
hours  as  a  rule,  having  passed,  the  retort  is  opened,  the  coke  raked  out 
and  quenched  with  water,  and  a  fresh  cliarge  of  coal  introduced. 

The  composition  of  the  coal  gas,  the  yield  per  ton  of  coal,  and  the 
quantity  of  tar  obtained,  depend  on  the  composition  of  the  coal,  the 
heat  at  which  distillation  is  conducted,  and  the  completeness  with  which 
the  latter  is  carried  out.  Rich,  fat  coals  naturally  give  more  and  better 
gas  than  dry  coals,  while  a  coal  distilled  at  a  low  red  heat  will  give  a 
richer  gas,  a  smaller  yield,  and  more  tar  than  the  same  coal  distilled 
at  a  lemon-yellow  lieat.  The  first  gas  given  off  from  the  coal  is  the 
highest  in  illuminating  power;  as  the  distillation  progresses  the  gas 
becomes  poorer  in  light-giving  constituents  as  the  percentage  of  hydrogen 
increases.     For  these  reasons  the  analvsis  of  coal  gas  varies  considerablv 


PETROLEUM    IN    GAS-MAKING.  163 

according  to  circumstances,  but  an  average  analysis  of  "twenty-candle" 
gas  is  approximately  as  follows: 

Methane :^.9% 

Hydrogen 45.6 

Illiuninants 6.5 

Carbon  dioxid 3.7 

Carbon  monoxid :.    6.6 

Hydrogen  sulphid 0.3 

Nitrogen 2.4 

100.0 

Methane,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  monoxid  furnish  heat  on  being 
burned,  but  no  light;  i.  e.,  they  burn  with  colorless  or  bluish  flames. 
The  light  is  fvirnished  solely  by  the  small  percentage  of  "illuminants," 
Avhile  hydrogen  sulphid  and  carbonic  acid  are  removed  by  the  purifying 
process  to  which  all  gas  is  subjected  before  being  sold,  and  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  are  indifferent  bodies.  The  heating  value  of  coal  gas  varies 
from  550  to  890  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot;  that  of  the  above  sample  would 
be  685  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot. 

Water  Gas  is  not  made  like  coal  gas,  by  destructive  distillation,  but 
by  combining  steam  with  incandescent  carbon.  Coke  and  anthracite 
consist,  aside  from  the  mineral  matter  of  the  ash,  almost  entirely  of 
carbon,  and  this  carbon,  on  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  vapor 
of  water,  at  a  high  red  heat,  decomposes  the  water,  taking  over  the 
oxygen  to  form  carbon  monoxid,  and  setting  hydrogen  free.  The  skele- 
ton of  this  reaction  is  represented  by  the  formula  C -f- H^O  =  CO  +  2H, 
though  the  actual  course  of  the  reaction  in  the  generator  is  probably 
not  so  simple. 

The  water-gas  set  consists  essentially  of  a  generator,  where  water  gas 
is  produced,  a  carburettor,  where  oil  gas  is  produced  and  mixed  with 
the  water  gas,  and  the  superheater,  where  the  oil  gas  is  "fixed,"  that  is, 
rendered  permanent,  so  that  it  will  not  condense  on  cooling.  The 
generator  is  simply  a  firebox  of  suitable  shape,  provided  with  means  for 
introducing  air  blast  and  steam  jets,  and  with  an  outlet  into  the  carburet- 
tor for  the  gas.  The  carburettor  is  a  box  packed  with  fire-brick  checker 
work,  and  provided  with  air  l)last  and  with  an  outlet  into  the  superheater. 
The  superheater  is  a  similar  box  tilled  with  checker  work,  and  provided 
with  air  blast  and  with  an  outlet  which  may  be  turned  at  will  into  a 
stack,  or  into  the  gas  pipe  leading  to  the  condensers.  Fig.  54  on  page 
164  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  such  a  plant,  though  it  should  l)e 
borne  in  mind  that  water-gas  sets  are  made  in  many  different  forms, 
and  that  the  figure  shows  only  the  general  outlines. 

In  working  this  apjiaratus,  a  bed  of  anthracite  coal  or  of  coke  is  laid  on 
the  firebars,  and  blown  to  a  bright  red  heat  by  means  of  the  air  blast. 


164 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


furnished  by  a  blowing  engine.  The  air  in  passing  through  the  fuel  not 
only  raises  its  temperature,  but  also  forms  producer  gas,  which  burns 
in  tlie  carburettor  and  the  superheater,  on  being  mixed  with  further 
supplies  of  air  at  these  points.  In  this  way  the  checker  work  in  these 
vessels  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature,  while  the  spent  gases  pass  out 
of  the  stack,  the  stack  valve  being  open  while  the  valve  in  the  pipe 
leading  to  condenser  is  closed. 

When  the  necessary  temperature  is  reached,  the  air  l)last  is  shut  off. 
the  stack  valve  is  closed  and  gas  valve  opened,  and  steam  is  turned  into 


Fig.  54.     Water  Gas  Generator,  Merritield-Westacott-Pearson  type. 

the  generator  below  the  incandescent  fuel.  The  steam  coming  into 
contact  with  the  carbon  forms  water  gas,  which  passes  at  a  high 
temperature  into  the  carburettor.  Here  it  meets  a  supply  of  hot  oil 
which  is  being  sprayed  over  the  checker,  and  oil  gas  is  formed  and 
mixes  with  the  water  gas,  the  mixture  going  forward  to  the  superheater 
and  then  to  the  condensers.  When  the  temperature  of  the  apparatus 
falls  too  low  for  the  steam  to  combine  Avith  carbon,  and  for  the  oil  to  be 
gasified  by  the  checker  work,  the  steam  and  oil  are  turned  off,  the  stack 
valve  opened,  the  air  blast  started,  and  the  heating  up  recommences. 
The  process  is  thus  an  intermittent  one,  the  periods  of  heating  up  and 
of  gas-making  being  usually  about  equal,  and  ranging  from  five  to 
twenty  minutes  each. 


PETROLEUM    IN    GAS-MAKING.  U)5 

This  apparatus  perforins  two  distinct  functions:  to  manufacture  pure 
water  gas,  and  to  mix  tliis  with  oil  gas.  Pure  water  gas  consists,  in 
general,  of  the  following  elements: 

Carbon  nionoxid-. - 42.0% 

Hydrogen.. 52.0 

Carbo n  dioxid 5.0 

>retbane 1.0 

100.0 

The  heating  value  of  a  gas  of  ahove  analysis  would  he  ahout  ooO  R.  T.  U. 
per  cuhic  foot. 

These  constituents  all  hum  with  l)luish  or  colorless  ilames,  and  water 
gas  is  suita])le  for  illumination  only  after  being  enriched  hy  the  addi- 
tion of  luminiferous  elements.  This  process  is  known  as  "carburetting," 
and  many  methods  of  accomplishing  the  desired  result  have  been  tried, 
but  at  the  ])resent  the  method  exclusively  used  on  this  coast  is  to 
produce  oil  gas  in  mixture  with  the  water  gas,  as  al)ove  outlined. 

Petroleum  of  whatever  nature  may,  by  heating  to  the  proper  temper- 
ature and  under  the  proper  conditions,  be  almost  entirely  converted 
into  permanent  gas,  and  at  the  temperature  of  the  carl)urettor  of  the 
water  gas  set,  these  gases  are  extremely  rich  in  illuminating  elements. 
The  nature  of  this  petroleum  gas  may  be  approximated  from  the  follow- 
ing analysis  of  a  sam|)le  of  Pintsch  gas,  which  is  made  l)y  decomposing 
oil  in  iron  retorts: 

Hydrogen 18.4% 

Metbane 42.9 

Illunlinant^< 26.9 

Nitrogen 11.8 

100.0 

The  heating  value  of  this  sample  was  1320  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot. 

The  photometric  value  of  the  mixed  gas  will  be  generally  proportional 

to  the  amount  of  oil  used,  though  depending  to  some  extent  on  the 

regulation  of  the  apparatus.     In  California  it  was  formerly  the  practice 

to  use  distillate  exclusively,  the  distillate  standard  for  this  purpose 

having  the  following  specifications: 

Gravity : 28°   to    30°  Be. 

Flash  point l.'i()°   to  180°  F. 

Distilling  below  150°  C 1%  to    15% 

Distilling  between  1;50°  and  270=  C. 50%  to    80% 

Residue  at  3(Xl°  C. 15%  or  less. 

An  oil  of  this  character  gives  a  stable  gas,  and  a  com])aratively  light 
tar.  The  quantity  used  varies  with  a  great  number  of  factors,  but  in 
making  twenty-candle  gas  it  is  considered  good  practice  if  no  more  than 
five  gallons  of  oil  are  used  per  thousand  feet  of  gas,  and  to  get  this 
result  requires  care. 


166  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Some  companies  specify  a  lighter  distillate,  while  others  use  crude  oil  * 
of  various  gravities.  Light  crude,  22°  or  better,  works  very  well,  but 
the  heavier  oils  are  the  source  of  some  annoyance.  The  asphalt  in 
these  heavy  oils  is  not  gasified,  but  is  largely  carried  forward  into  the 
tar,  making  the  latter  very  heavy,  and  often  causing  troublesome  stop- 
pages. The  quantity  of  crude  varies  widely,  but  in  any  case  con- 
siderably exceeds  the  quantity  of  distillate  which  would  be  required  to 
do  the  same  work. 

The  manufacture  of  enriched  water  gas  for  illuminating  purposes  i-> 
by  no  means  new,  but  was  first  put  on  a  practical  working  basis  by  th. 
inventions  of  Mr.  T.  S.  C.  Lowe,  and  is  now  very  widely  used  in  tlv- 
United  States  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  Europe.  Where  bituminous 
coal  is  expensive,  as  it  is  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  enriched  water  gas  can 
be  manufactured  at  a  considerably  lower  cost  than  coal  gas,  and  in 
addition  the  installation,  on  a  large  scale,  is  much  less  expensive. 

Because  of  the  high  cost  of  anthracite,  or  other  hard  fuel  suitable  to 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  water  gas,  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  devise  processes  which  will  entirely  dispense  with  solid  fuel  in 
gas-making,  using  oil  exclusively.  Many  difficulties  were  met,  and  for 
a  long  time  the  problem  remained  unsolved,  but  during  the  past  three 
or  four  years  successful  apparatus  has  been  devised,  and  has  now 
replaced  water  gas  apparatus  in  over  fifty  towns  and  cities  of  the- 
Pacific  Coast. 

The  generator  for  the  manufacture  of  what  is  known  as  "crude  oil 
water  gas"  is  very  similar  to  that  used  for  ordinary  water  gas;  in  fact, 
in  one  system  the  old  apparatus  is  converted  to  the  new  use  by  con- 
structing checker  work  in  the  generator  proper  and  placing  the  oil 
burners  (that  is,  the  fire)  at  the  top  instead  of  at  the  bottom.  But  th'- 
greatest  success  appears  to  have  been  had  with  apparatus  constructed 
specially  for  the  purpose.  In  this  apparatus,  the  generator,  instead  of 
a  bed  of  fuel,  has  a  fire-brick  checker,  which  is  heated  by  means  of  oil 
burners,  carbon  being  at  the  same  time  deposited  on  the  brick.  Th- 
proper  heat  in  generator  and  superheater  being  attained,  the  air  supply 
is  shut  off,  and  steam  and  oil  introduced,  as  in  making  ordinary  water 
gas.  The  steam  combines  with  the  carbon  on  the  checkers,  forming 
water  gas,  while  the  oil  is  decomposed  to  form  oil  gas,  which  is  fixed  ii 
the  usual  manner.  The  apparatus,  like  the  usual  water-gas  set,  i- 
intermittent  in  its  action. 

The  following  particulars  as  to  analysis  of  this  gas,  and  the  advantage- 
of  the  process,  are  furnished  by  the  California  Light  and  Fuel  Company, 
manufacturers  of  water-gas  machinery  using  oil  for  fuel: 

"As  generally  manufactured,  to  meet  the  demands  of  custom,  thi^ 
"gas  is  of  from  20  to  22  candlepower,  about  95  %  combustible,  and  con- 
"  taining  from  650  to  675  heat  units  (B.  T.   U.)  per  cubic  foot,  and. 


PETHOLKl'M     IN    (iAS-.MAKING.  1()7 

''  while  it  is  an  illuiuinating  water  gay  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 
'•  the  term,  its  analysis  shows  its  composition  to  he  between  that  gas 
"  and  coal  gas,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  which  gives 
"  average  analyses  of  good  qualities  of  these  three  gases,  when  made  in 
"  a  first-class  and  thorough  manner,  and  when  purified  by  iron  oxid. 

"The  analyses  show  the  seven  constituents   usually  determined   in 
"  ordinary  observations: 

Lowe  Ordinary 

CoiistitiU'iits.                                           Crude  Oil  Illuminating  Coal  Gas. 

Water  Gas.  Water  Gas. 

Carbonic  acid  2.0%  3.0%  2.0% 

Heavy  hydrocarbons 10.0  11.0  S.O 

Oxygen .2  .2  .2 

Carbonic  oxid 7.0  22.0  6.0 

Marsh  gas 28.0  21.0  36.0 

Hydrogen 48.0  38.0  47.0 

Nitrogen  4.8  4.8  3.8 

Total 100.0  100.0  100.0 

Candle-power 20to22  20to22  16tol7 

B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot  (calculated) 662  621  655 

Specific  gravity,  calculated  (Air  =  1) 0.452  0.577  0.428 

"  The  heating  powers  of  the  gases,  as  given  above,  are  calculated  from 
'•  the  thermal  values  of  their  various  combustible  constituents,  as 
"determined  by  the  observations  of  Bertholet  (see  'Calorific  Power  of 
"Fuels,'  by  Poole,  page  203),  who  gives  the  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot  of 
"those  gases  as  follows:  Carbonic  oxid,  341;  hydrogen,  347;  marsh 
"gas,  1073;  and  ethylene,  1712. 

"  In  the  foregoing  analyses  the  heavy  hydrocarbons  are  estimated  as 
"  ethylene,  as  is  the  customary  practice,  and  though  this  may,  or  may 
"  not,  be  a  correct  value  for  these  gases  (there  being  a  variety  of  opinions 
"on  that  subject),  as  all  of  the  results  given  in  the  above  table  are 
"  calculated  from  the  same  factors,  a  fair  comparison  is  afforded. 

"The  Lowe  crude  oil  water  gas  process  does  not  require  the  use  of  any 
"  special  kind  or  ({uality  of  oil,  any  grade  being  entirely  suitable  for  its 
"  use,  either  crude  petroleum  direct,  or  its  distillates  or  residuums,  but 
"  as  crude  oil  is  generally  the  cheapest  its  use  is  ordinarily  advised. 
"  All  grades  and  kinds  are  handled  successfully  and  with  facility, 
"  including  Texas  oils,  and  not  excepting  even  the  very  heavy  and 
"  viscous  asphaltic  oils  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  some  of  which  are  of 
"extremely  low  grade  (about  as  thick  as  molasses),  being  from  12°  to 
"14°  Beaume  (specific  gravity,  0.9859  to  0.9722),  which  grade  of  oil  is 
"  successfully  handled  in  no  other  gas-making  system. 

"The  quantity  of  material  necessary  per  1000  cubic  feet  depends,  of 
"  course,  on  the  amount  of  gas  made,  the  quality  desired,  and  also 
"somewhat  on  the  grade  of  the  oil;  but,  generally  si)eaking,  from  S 
"gallons  per  1000  cul)ic  feet  in  large  works,  to  12  gallons  per  1000  culiic 


168  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"  feet  in  sniuU  works,  are  required,  with  intermediate  varying  amounts, 
"  depending  upon  the  size  of  works  and  average  gas  output,  the  quan- 
"  tity  of  materials  stated  also  including  the  fuel  necessary  for  steam- 
"  making  purposes.  When  using  these  amounts,  the  gas  will  have  the 
"  average  composition  given  in  the  above  table,  when  made  in  a  skilled 
''manner,  although  better  .or  poorer  grades  can  be  made  at  the  will  of 
"  the  operator  by  varying  the  quantity  of  material  used. 

"  In  addition  to  oil,  gas-making  expense  is  covered  by  the  items  of 
"  purification,  water,  and  labor. 

"  The  item  of  purification  is  a  very  small  one,  the  inexpensive  iron 
*'  oxid  method  being  entirely  suitable,  and  as  there  is  usually  much 
"  less  sulphur  in  this  gas  than  in  coal  gas,  or  in  water  gas  made  from 
"  coal  and  oil,  less  purification  is  necessary. 

"  Water  is  used  for  steam-making  purposes  and  also  for  condensing 
''  and  cleansing  the  gas,  the  amount  used  being  about  the  same  as  with 
"  ordinary  water  gas.  This  is  usually  a  very  small  item  of  expense,  as 
"it  is  the  custom  in  most  gas  works  to  pump  the  water  supply,  and  as 
"  there  is  sufficient  steam  estimated  upon  for  this  purpose  in  the  stated 
''  amount  of  oil  used  per  1000  cubic  feet,  this  item  becomes  insignificant. 

"  Labor  can  be  much  less  in  this  process  than  in  any  other,  as,  there 
''  being  no  solid  fuels  to  handle,  a  gas-maker  is  able  to  accomplish  very 
''  much  more  work  than  with  any  other  gas-making  method.  Skilled 
"  labor  is  not  necessary,  as  the  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  extremely 
"  simple  and  easily  learned,  and  any  man  of  average  intelligence  can 
"  master  its  working  with  moderate  instruction." 


CHAPTER  14. 
OILED  ROADS. 


The  necessity  for  road  improvement  in  California  is  too  apparent  to 
need  any  argument.  The  Pacific  Coast  is  a  country  of  magnificent 
distances,  and  also  a  country  of  comparatively  sparse  population,  so 
that  while  the  importance  of  good  roads  to  the  welfare  of  the  State  is 
appreciated,  the  expense  of  putting  and  keeping  the  highways  in  order 
over  long  stretches  of  unsettled  land  is,  or  rather  has  been,  prohibitive. 
The  oiled  road  seems  to  offer  the  most  feasible  solution  of  the  difficulty. 

The  principle  upon  which  road  oiling  operates  is  the  binding  together 
of  the  loose  particles  of  the  surface  into  a  compact  and  resistant,  and 
yet  elastic  mass,  by  an  oil  of  asphaltic  nature,  thus  preventing  the 
grinding  of  the  road  into  dust  during  the  long  summer,  and  into  mud 
in  winter,  and  preserving  the  roadbed  from  the  destructive  effects  of 


OILED    ROADS.  Kii) 

running  water.  To  accomplish  this  result  economically,  the  asphaltic 
residuum  must  be  a  considerable  part  of  the  oil,  and  must  be  tough, 
clastic,  and  cohesive,  while  at  the  same  time  proof  against  the  effects  of 
the  weather.  The  crude  oils  of  California  are  jiarticularly  suited  to 
tliis  use;  in  fact,  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  no  other  oils  produced 
ill  (juantity  are  so  well  suited. 

Oil  Sprinkling". — Any  passal)le  road  may  be  rendered  i)ractically  or 
entirely  dustlcss  by  merely  sj)rinkling  with  oil,  leaving  the  mixing  and 
compression  to  be  done  by  passing  vehicles.  The  disadvantages  of  this 
method  are  obvious:  that  it  leaves  the  road  surface  covered  with  fresh  oil, 
which  is  carried  away  on  the  wheels  of  vehicles  and  on  the  shoes  of  pedes- 
trians, and  that  the  surface  when  finally  settled  will  be  extremely 
irregular,  pasty  with  excess  of  oil  in  one  spot,  dry  and  loose  in  the  next. 
Yet  even  this  simple  treatment  is  much  more  effective  than  sprinkling 
witli  water,  as  it  practically  does  away  with  dust,  and  as  it  is  very  much 
cheaper  than  either  watering  or  proper  oiling  it  has  been  and  undoubt- 
edly will  be  much  used. 

In  Fresno.— During  the  summer  of  1902  many  of  the  streets  of 
Fresno  were  oiled  in  this  manner.  The  soil  of  this  portion  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  is  sandy,  but  also  contains  considerable  clay  or  shale, 
so  that  during  the  long  summer  the  unimproved  roads  become  almost 
impassable  from  the  depth  of  sandy  dust,  while  the  main  roads,  which 
have  been  graveled,  have  to  be  watered  twice  a  day  and  then  are  dry 
most  of  the  time.  The  oiling  operation  consisted  simply  in  applying 
cold  oil  to  the  surface,  with  no  attempt  at  mixing,  rolling,  or  covering. 
The  inniiediate  result  was  a  wide  expanse  of  sticky  black  oil,  which 
caused  much  complaint  on  account  of  being  carried  into  houses  and 
over  carpets.  But  under  the  influence  of  the  sun  the  surface  oil  soon 
soaked  away,  and  while  there  were  only  occasional  spots  which  had 
enough  oil  to  be  firm,  the  entire  surface  was  cohesive  enough  to  prevent 
dust  from  rising,  and  the  condition  of  the  road  Avas,  altogether,  greatly 
improved,  and  at  a  very  small  expense.  This  method  seems  of  doubt- 
ful economy  in  a  city  of  the  size  and  wealth  of  Fresno,  but  where  long 
stretches  of  road  over  unsettled  country  are  to  be  improved,  it  offers  a 
means  of  considerably  increasing  the  comfort  and  usefulness  of  a  high- 
way at  small  cost. 

The  same  process  has  been  much  used  by  the  railroads  in  California, 
a  great  many  miles  of  roadbed  having  been  oiled.  It  is  customary  in 
railroad  work  to  apply  the  oil  a  little  at  a  time,  in  several  applications, 
allowing  time  enough  after  each  for  the  oil  to  dry.  In  this  way  a  coat- 
ing of  the  consistency  of  asphalt  is  formed  over  the  ballast,  and  dust  is 
entirely  laid,  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that  this  crust  is  not  subject  to 
wear,  and  would  probably  be  ra})idly  destroyed  if  traveled  over  by 
teams,  as  it  has  little  solid  foundation. 


170  I'KTROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Complete  Constpuction  of  Oiled  Road.— It  may  be  well  to  pass  from 
the  simplest  form  of  road  oiling,  the  mere  sprinkling  of  the  surfaee,  to 
a  description  of  the  complete  construction  of  a  first-class  road,  as  all 
intermediate  grades  of  work  would  be  carried  out  along  the  same  lines. 

Grading. — The  first  element  in  the  construction  of  a  good  road,  whether 
oiled  or  not,  is  to  })rovide  proper  crown  and  gutters  for  drainage,  to 
insert  cross  drains  or  culverts  on  side  hills,  and  to  secure  proper  eleva- 
tion and  sound  foundation  on  low  or  marshy  ground.  These  are 
problems  for  the  civil  engineer,  and  as  they  have  been  extensively 
treated  by  experts  need  not  be  dwelt  on  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  an 
oiled  road,  like  any  other,  must  be  drained,  and  must  have  a  founda- 
tion. An  oiled  road  is  very  much  like  an  asphalt  pavement,  in  that 
the  asphaltic  or  bituminous  layer  is  merely  a  surface  dressing  ;  the 
road  is  underneath.  It  took  the  city  of  San  Francisco  many  years  to 
learn  that  a  tliin  sheet  of  asphaltic  composition  spread  over  loose  sand 
does  not  make  a  pavement.  Further,  a  narrow  roadbed,  properly 
graded  and  oiled  over  the  whole  surface,  is  more  serviceable  and  no 
more  expensive  than  a  wider  road,  necessarily  of  flatter  section,  and 
oiled  in  the  center  only.  An  eighteen-foot  roadway  will  accommodate 
a  very  heavy  traffic,  Avhile  on  long  stretches  with  light  traffic  a  twelve- 
foot  bed  is  amply  sufficient. 

Wearing  Surface. — We  will  suppose  a  roadway,  say  eighteen  feet  in 
width,  to  be  properly  graded,  crowned  from  four  to  six  inches,  and 
drained  where  necessary.  The  next  step  is  to  provide  the  wearing  sur- 
face. The  bed  material  may  be  gravel,  sand,  sandy  clay  or  loam,  or 
adobe.  If  the  bed  is  of  gravel  or  of  sand,  the  surface  may  be  formed 
of  the  same  material,  or  if  of  sandy  clay,  a  good  surface  may  be  made 
if  the  sand  approximates  half  the  bulk  of  the  soil.  But  if  the  bed  is 
of  adobe,  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  of  it  a  good  wearing  surface.  If 
sand  or  gravel  are  to  be  had  at  a  reasonable  cost  it  is  well  to  provide 
for  a  wearing  surface  of  these  materials  over  the  adobe;  if  not  availa- 
ble, a  different  treatment  must  be  adopted,  which  will  be  described 
later. 

Rolling. — Supposing  that  the  materials  for  the  bed  are  reasonably 
porous,  the  road  should  be  thoroughly  consolidated  by  rolling,  unless 
this  has  been  done  by  use.  To  facilitate  i)acking  of  the  material,  the 
roadbed  should  be  well  wet  down  during  rolling,  as  much  water  being 
used  as  the  material  will  take  without  becoming  too  sticky.  The  rolling 
can  hardly  be  overdone,  in  any  case  it  should  be  continued  until  no 
further  settlement  is  evident,  and  the  surface  is  hard  and  smooth.  If  a 
wearing  surface  of  foreign  material  is  to  be  used,  this  is  now  placed, 
spread  evenly,  and  rolled  in  the  same  manner.  If  the  improvements 
are  being  made  on  an  old  road  the  procedure  is  practically  the  same, 


OILED    ROADS.  171 

tlie  old  surface  l)eing  loosened  uj),  ehuckholes  filled,  and  the  surface 
graded,  wetted,  and  rolled  with  care. 

Loosening. — We  have  now  our  road  shai)ed  and  i-onsolidated,  but  sat- 
urated with  water,  and  it  nuist  be  allowed  to  dry  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
two  inches,  or  to  the  depth  to  which  the  later  harrowing  operations  are 
to  be  carried.  On  no  account  must  the  road  he  opened  to  travel  lohile 
dryiuij,  as  it  would  thus  be  cut  up  and  spoiled.  Neither  should  the  oil 
l)e  applied  until  the  road  is  dry,  as  oil  will  not  adhere  to  a  wet  surface, 
nor  penetrate  a  saturated  mass.  When  dried  sufficiently,  the  surface 
is  loosened  to  allow  the  oil  to  penetrate.  This  is  done  with  a  harrow; 
the  depth  to  which  the  loosening  should  extend  is  not  entirely  a  matter 
of  agreement  among  experts.  It  should  not  be  less  than  two  inches, 
and  may  be  as  great  as  four,  and  will  depend  to  some  extent  on  the 
nature  of  the  bed  material  and  on  the  probable  firmness  of  the  road- 
bed. If  the  bed  is  very  firm  and  solid,  only  a  thin  layer  need  be 
loosened,  as  the  bed  can  be  depended  on  to  carry  the  weight  of  traffic, 
and  the  oiled  portion  may  be  merely  a  wearing  surface;  but  if  the  bed  is 
incoherent,  as  in  roads  made  over  drift  sand,  the  oil  must  be  carried 
deeper,  for  in  this  case  the  oiled  surface  nnist  take  not  merely  the  wear, 
but  also  the  weight  of  the  traffic.  In  any  case  the  harrowing  should 
be  continued  until  the  surface  is  thoroughly  loosened  and  broken  up  to 
the  required  depth;  a  skilled  man  is  necessary  for  this  work,  as  the 
grade  must  be  preserved  and  the  surface  left  smooth  and  even. 

Oiling. — The  harrowing  being  finished  the  oil  is  applied.  This  is  a 
very  important  part  of  the  work,  and  several  points  must  be  considered : 

The  quality  of  tlie  oil  to  be  used  will  be  spoken  of  near  the  end  of 
this  chapter. 

The  quanfify  of  oil  used  will  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  road 
material,  coarse  material  taking  more  oil  than  fine,  and  with  the  depth 
to  which  the  surface  is  loosened.  Mr.  T.  F.  White,  a  recognized  author- 
ity, says:^  "No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  quantity  of  oil  to  be 
"  used,  except  to  put  on  all  the  oil  the  road  material  will  bear,  without 
''  being  left  in  a  sticky  condition.  This  may  vary  from  forty  to  one 
"  hundred  barrels  per  mile,  per  single  width  of  the  oiler  (six  feet),  on  a 
"  newly  oiled  road.  The  first  season  of  oiling  a  road  is  the  most  im- 
■  portant  one.  On  loose,  sandy  roads,  two  or  three  applications  may 
"'  often  be  put  on  to  advantage,  the  first  season.  The  more  oil  that  can 
"  be  incorporated  Avith  the  road  covering  the  first  season,  the  less  will 
"  be  required  the  next  season,  and  still  less  thereafter.  The  streets 
■'  treated  in  Chino  in  1899  took  for  the  two  applications  made  during 
"  the  season  about  sixty  barrels  per  mile,  per  width  of  the  oiler.     In 


'From  a  paper  by  Mr.  White,  in  "California  Municipalities,"  1903.  Free  use  has 
been  made  of  this  and  other  papers  by  the  same  writer  in  tlie  preparation  of  this 
cliapter. 


172  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"  1900  about  half  this  quantity,  in  1901  one  quarter,  and  in  1902  none, 
"  except  on  a  narrow  strip  along  the  center  of  the  streets,  that  had 
"  become  roughened  up  a  little.  This  received  a  very  light  sprinkling, 
"  followed  by  sanding.  These  streets  are  now  like  asphalt  pavements, 
"  and  apparently  will  not  need  any  oiling  in  1903." 

The  tempernfvre  at  ivfn'rh  oil  is  to  Jie  applied  (that  is,  the  temperature 
of  the  oil)  is  a  debated  question.  If  the  oil  is  heated,  it  is  much  more 
readily  controlled,  and  can  undoubtedly  be  spread  more  evenly  than 
when  applied  cold.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  heating  of  the  oil  is 
the  source  of  considerable  expense,  and  it  is  rather  doubtful  whether 
the  advantages  gained  compensate  for  the  added  cost.  It  was  formerly 
assumed  that  oil  ai)])lied  hot  would  })enetrate  farther  and  faster  than 
cold  oil,  but  if  we  reflect  that  the  oil  makes  but  a  very  small  part  of  the 
bulk  of  road  mixture,  and  that  the  spray  of  oil  as  it  falls  must  be  chilled 
almost  instantly  to  road  temperature  if  the  oil  is  hot,  or  raised  to  road 
temperature  if  cooler,  it  will  appear  that  the  temperature  at  application 
will  make  very  little  difference  in  the  penetration.  The  tendency  at 
present  seems  to  be  toward  the  use  of  the  oil  cold,  and  while  consider- 
able sums  are  invested  in  heating  plants,  most  of  the  new  work  is  being 
done  with  cold  oil. 

The  temperature  of  the  road  at  the  time  the  oil  is  applied  is  a  matter 
of  great  importance.  The  very  heavy  oils  used  in  road  work  are  barely 
fluid  at  (30°  F.,  while  at  110°  they  are  much  more  limpid.  It  seems 
evident  that  if  the  surface  material  is  hot  and  dry  the  oil  will  be  greatly 
assisted  in  thoroughly  saturating  the  mass,  while  if  the  road  is  cold 
and  damp  the  oil  is  much  more  likely  to  lie  in  pools  on  the  surface,  or 
on  harrowing  to  "  ball  up  "  into  lumps  coated  with  oil  but  dry  inside. 
Oiling  should  always  be  done  in  summer,  and  on  dry  days,  damp  and 
foggy  mornings  being  carefully  avoided. 

It  is  important,  again,  that  the  oil  should  be  evenly  spread  over  the 
surface,  not  left  in  patches,  as  may  often  be  seen.  Some  ingenious 
devices  to  accomplish  this  result  have  been  invented,  but  no  machine 
will  do  away  with  tlie  necessity  for  care  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

Mixing. — The  oil  having  been  evenly  spread,  it  is  now  to  be  incorpo- 
rated with  the  loose  road  material.  In  the  city  of  Santa  Barbara  this 
is  done  by  means  of  a  ''tamper,  consisting  of  large  iron  teeth  resem- 
bling exaggerated  railroad  spikes,  set  into  a  wooden  cylinder."  This 
seems  like  a  very  rational  apparatus,  as  the  teeth  have  at  once  a  cutting 
and  a  lifting  action,  and  as  the  grade  is  likely  to  be  better  preserved 
than  by  a  drag  harrow,  the  teeth  being  always  buried  to  the  same 
depth.  Wheel  harrows  are  also  used  and  a  special  machine  of  this 
construction  will  l)e  descrilied  further  on.  In  any  case  mixing  should 
be  continued  until  free  oil  has  disappeared,  and  until  all  lumps  of 
dry  material  seem  to  be  broken  up  and  dispersed. 


OILED    ROADS.  173 

Finishing. — The  road  may  now  be  rolled  and  opened  for  traffic,  or 
better,  it  may  be  kept  closed  until  the  oil  has  had  a  chance  to  set. 
Rolling  immediately  after  oiling  is  not  very  effective,  as  if  enough  oil 
has  been  used  to  make  a  good  road,  the  material  will  have  ])ut  little 
body.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  oil  when  freshly  ajjplied  has 
no  binding  properties,  but  simi)ly  moistens  the  grains  of  road  material, 
making  a  mixture  analogous  to  stiff  mud.  The  cementing  projx-rty  is 
developed  by  evaporation  and  oxidation  of  the  liquid  portion  of  the 
oil,  ])y  which  the  latter  is  converted  ultimately  into  asphalt.  Now  if 
the  surface  is  rolled  immediately  after  oiling,  it  is  smoothed  down  and 
consolidated  so  that  air  will  have  access  to  the  surface  only,  and  drying- 
will  ])v  much  retarded,  while  at  the  same  time  the  surface  has  little 
stability  and  will  quickly  cut  up  under  the  wheels  of  vehicles.  The 
surface  has  then  to  be  reduced  to  shape  by  the  traffic,  which  makes 
ruts  and  chuckholes  almost  inevitable.  But  if  the  loose  oiled  surface 
can  be  allowed  to  stand  three  or  four  weeks  in  summer,  unused,  before 
rolling,  the  air  and  light  will  have  much  more  action  on  the  oil,  the 
latter  will  liave  time  to  penetrate  thoroughly  and  to  become  partly 
hardened,  and  if  then  rolled  will  form  a  tough  surface,  which  will  roll 
smoother  and  stand  considerable  wear  from  the  first  without  cutting. 
Of  course,  in  many  cases  it  is  quite  necessary  to  open  the  road  imme- 
diately after  oiling,  and  here  it  is  probably  better  to  roll  before  opening, 
followed  if  possible  by  a  second  rolling  after  some  weeks'  use.  Before 
rolling,  enough  sand  should  be  spread  over  the  surface  to  take  up  any 
free  oil,  and  this  sand  should  be  clean  and  sharp.  When  an  important 
road  is  to  be  oiled  it  may  be  possible  to  work  half  the  width  at  a  time, 
turning  the  traffic  onto  the  other  half,  and  the  oiled  portion  may  then 
be  allowed  to  stand  long  enough  to  get  the  very  best  results. 

Reoiling. — The  road  is  now  finished  for  the  time.  No  matter  how 
carefully  the  work  has  been  done,  weak  spots  will  always  appear  after 
a  certain  amount  of  use,  and  will  cause  no  trouble  if  immediately 
attended  to,  but  may  be  destructive  if  allowed  to  spread.  After  several 
months'  use  and  after  the  surface  has  been  raised  somewhat  by  wear, 
l)ut  before  the  winter  rains  set  in,  another  light  application  of  oil  is 
advisable,  followed  by  just  enough  sand  to  take  up  the  free  oil.  This 
helps  greatly  to  render  the  road  impervious  to  winter  rains,  if  applied 
at  the  end  of  the  dry  season.  Some  oil  will  be  required  the  next  year; 
after  that  the  amount  of  oiling  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  wear  and 
the  nature  of  the  road  material.  If  incipient  chuckholes  are  promptly 
filled  with  oily  sand  and  rolled  or  tamped  so  that  traffic  will  pass  over 
rather  than  around  them,  an  oiled  road  constructed  as  above  outlined 
should  last  many  years  without  other  care  than  a  slight  amount  of  oil 
a})plie(l  annually  or  l)iennially. 


174  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Roads  in  Adobe  Soil. — When  oiled  roads  are  to  be  constructed  from 
adol)e  soil,  in  such  situation  that  absorl)ent  material  for  top  dressing 
can  not  be  had,  a  different  method  is  followed.  The  roadbed  is  formed, 
wetted,  and  very  thoroughly  rolled,  and  then  allowed  to  become  quite 
dry.  The  oil  is  then  api)lied  to  the  hard  surface  without  harrowing  or 
mixing,  and  best  in  two  or  three  portions.  After  the  last  application, 
a  very  thin  coat  of  sand,  or  failing  anything  better,  dry  road  dust,  is 
added,  just  sufficient  to  absorb  the  surplus  oil,  and  the  road  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  short  time  before  being  used.  Xo  rolling  is  needed  after 
the  oil. 

The  rationale  of  this  process  is,  that  sand  and  gravel  are  incoherent 
when  dry,  and  must  be  cemented  together  to  a  considerable  depth  by 
the  oil  in  order  to  give  a  durable  surface,  while  adobe,  on  the  contrary, 
is  very  hard  when  dry,  and  so  long  as  the  surface  is  protected  from 
wear,  and  water  kept  out  of  the  foundation,  the  clay  itself  makes  a 
good  and  strong  road.  It  is  only  necessary,  therefore,  to  form  an 
asphaltic  skin  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  road,  to  take  the  Avear  of 
wheels  and  hoofs,  and  to  keep  out  water,  but  this  skin  must  be  imper- 
vious to  rain,  and  should  be  formed  of  several  thin  layers  of  oil  applied 
at  intervals.  And  as  water  from  below  has  the  same  softening  effect 
as  water  from  above,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  raise  the  roadbed  well 
above  water  level  in  low  ground,  and  to  so  gutter  or  tile  sidehill  stretches 
that  water  can  not  form  pools  on  the  uphill  side  of  the  road.  If  these 
precautions  are  taken,  a  very  good  road  can  be  made  over  adobe  ground 
with  no  other  materials  than  a  little  sand  for  sprinkling;  but  if  they 
are  neglected,  the  oiling  of  an  adobe  road  will  not  prove  very  satisfactory. 

A  Road  in  San  Bernardino  County.  -  Following  is  a  description  in 
detail  of  the  construction  of  a  stretch  of  road  across  a  portion  of  8an 
Bernardino  County,  under  the  direction  of  Supervisor  T.  F.  White.' 
While  some  of  the  conditions  met  in  this  particular  case  are  a  little 
unusual,  the  general  procedure  is  the  same  as  would  be  followed  in  any 
case  where  first-class  results  were  desired,  and  the  description  is  of 
importance  as  embodying  the  result  of  much  experience  and  expert 
knowledge. 

The  piece  of  road  in  question  is  one  and  one  half  miles  in  length,  and 
was  a  new  road,  never  before  graded.  Part  of  the  road  is  through  bot- 
tom land,  with  soil  varying  from  loose  sand  to  clayey  loam,  part  around 
and  up  a  hill,  on  a  4.5%  grade.  After  the  hill,  the  road  encoimtered  a 
piece  of  adobe  soil,  which  works  into  deep,  sticky  mud  during  the 
winter  rains. 

The"  grading  was  done  in  the  early  s})ring,  and  the  cost,  esi)ecially 
in  the  hill  portion,  was  heavy.  A  roadway  forty  feet  wide,  including 
ditches,  was  thrown  up  through  the  bottom,  and  a  twenty-four  foot 

1  Coinnuiiiication  from  Mr.  White  to  Mr.  O.  S.  Bree^>e,  Field  Assistant. 


OILED    ROADS. 


175 


roadway  built  around  the  hill.  Through  the  bottom,  which  sometimes 
gets  very  wet  during  winter,  the  rt)adbed  was  thrown  up  to  a  good 
height,  and  crowned   and  well  ditched  to  secure  drainage,  and  rolled. 


Xo.  .SO.     Road  Near  Chixo.  Before  Oii.ixg. 

No  part  of  the  distance  had  material  sucli  as  would  make  a  satisfactory 
roadl)ed  for  the  large  travel  it  would  have  to  accommodate. 

While  grading  over  the  hill  a  deposit  of  "oil  sand"  was  struck,  this 
being    a   disintegrated  oil    sandstone   wliich  is  found   in   many  places 


Nu.  ol.     iloAD  Near  L'hino,  Foik  Yeak.s  Old — Three  Oilingp. 

through  these  hills.  This  material  had  been  tried  the  year  before,  on  a 
bit  of  road  and  found  excellent.  It  is  sharp  sand  and  gravel,  with 
sufficient  clay  included  to  make  it  pack  down  firm  and  hard  when 
properly  heated,  with  good  Avearing  qualities,  and  further  it  is  a  natural 
absorbent  of  oil.  Without  oil,  however,  it  becomes  sticky  and  cuts  up 
12— BUL.  32 


176  PETROLEl'M    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

in  winter.     Tl^ie  deposit  was  uncovered,  and  the  one  and  one  half  miles 
previously  graded  was  surfaced  with  this  material.     This   was  done  in 
the  summer  and  early  fall.     The  roadbed — the  cuts  and   1111s — had  in 
the  meantime  become  well  settled  and  packed   down.     Stakes  were  set 
for  a  graveled  way  twenty  feet  wide,  along  the  middle  of  the   road.     A 
blade  grader  was  run  over  it,  throwing  the  dirt   out   of  this  way  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  and  forming  a  shoulder  of  eight  or  nine  j 
inches,  on  either  side,  for  the  surfacing  material  to  abut  against.     Upon  : 
this  foundation  the  gravel  was  spread,  to  a  depth  of  nine  inches  in  tin 
center    down    to    eight   inches    on    either    side.      The    foundation    wa:^  i 
watered,  ahead  of  the  spreaders,  to  keep  it  firm,  and  to  cause  the  gravel  I 
to  unite  better  with  it.     After    the    gravel  was   spread  and  smoothly 
shaped,    the    watering   carts    were    started,  and    the    road   thoroughly  j 
soaked.     That  the  Avater  might  wet  it  clear  through,  a  heavy  orchard  ! 
cultivator  was  kept  running  over  it  while  the  water  was  being  put  on. 
This  opened  up  the  gravel,  and  allowed  the  water  to  go  down  through  | 
instead  of  running  off.     The  cultivator  was^  kept  running  until  sufficient  i 
water  had  been  put  on,  when  the  surfacing  material  had  been  worked 
into  a  homogeneous  mass,  of  the  consistency  of  mud  for  brick.     The  i 
Avetting  down  and  stirring  were  done  in  sections  of  such  length  that  ! 
each  could  be  finished  in  one  day,  and  the  next  morning  a  lever  harrow 
was  put  on  to  smooth  over  and  shape  up  the  surface.     This  recjuired  a  , 
man   with   a  good  eye  and  some  expertness,  that  the  road  might  be 
gotten  even  and  properly  crowned.     The  harrowing  was  finished  in  the 
forenoon,  and  the  weather  being  favorable  to  drying,  the  roller  went 
on  in  the  afternoon. 

Though  all  these  steps  are  important,  the  rolling  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  of  all.  The  roller  used  on  this  work  weighed  1600  pounds 
per  foot  width,  without  loading,  which  is  about  right  for  the  first  two 
days,  or  as  long  as  the  road  is  at  all  spongy.  As  soon  as  the  sponginess 
is  gone,  the  roller  can  be  weighted,  conveniently  with  pig  iron,  until 
the  weight  is  finally  brought  to  3000  pounds  per  foot.  The  rolling  was 
continued  from  day  to  day  until  no  further  impression  was  made,  and 
the  surface  was  left  hard  and  smooth. 

After  the  roadbed  had  dried  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  or  more,  the 
oil  was  applied,  first  sending  out  a  man  with  rake  and  shovel  to  remove 
all  manure  or  other  loose  material  from  the  surface.  The  oil  was 
applied  hot,  coming  in  this  instance  directly  from  the  refinery,  three 
miles  distant,  starting  at  a  temperature  of  250"  to  300°  F.,  and  arriving 
at  the  work  at  from  200"  to  250"  F. 

One  hundred  and  twenty  barrels  of  oil  were  applied  per  mile  (late 
in  the  fall  another  light  application  was  given).  Two  men  with  four 
horses  did  this  work,  putting  on  one  half  mile  per  day. 

The  total  cost  of  construction  of  this  one  and  one  half  miles  closely 


OILED    ROADS.  177 

approximated  $1800,  or  about  11200  per  mile.  But  as  the  grading  and 
graveling  were  elements  entering  into  the  eost  of  any  pro})erly  con- 
structed road  of  this  character,  whether  intended  for  oiling  or  not,  the 
only  cost  over  and  above  that  of  a  connnon  macadam  road  was  that  of 
the  oiling  proper.  This  cost  was,  120  barrels  of  oil  at  $1.25  per  barrel, 
$150,  plus  the  cost  of  sprinkling,  $15  per  mile,  or  $165  per  mile  cost  of 
oiling. 

This  bit  of  road,  when  exandned  in  1902,  had  been  down  two  and  one 
half  years,  had  received  one  light  coat  of  oil  the  year  following  its  con- 
struction, and  was  still  in  good  condition,  though  needing  some  oil  for 
the  year  1902.     The  quantity  of  oil  used  in  the  second  application  was 
I  not  over  one  fourth  the  amount  used  in  building  the  road. 

Roads  in  Golden  Gate  Park. — Some  of  the   roads  in  Golden  Gate 

;  Park,  San  Francisco,  have  been  oiled  during  the  last  two  years,  with  most 

!  excellent  results,  the  roads  being  very  smooth  and  firm,  closely  resem- 

I  bling  and  in  fact  often  mistaken  for  asphalt  pavement,  entirely  dustless, 

I  and  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  mud  during  the  long  rainy  season  of 

the  spring  of  1904.     The  roads  were  originally  constructed  of  "  red  rock,'' 

the  hard  metamorphosed  shale  of  which  the  hills  around  San  Francisco 

are  largely  formed,  and  by  much  use  and  constant  attention  have  been 

brought  into  excellent  condition.     The  o]>ject  of  oiling  here  was,  not  to 

make  a  road,  but  to  preserve  the  surface,  lay  the  dust,  and  prevent  any 

formation  of  mud  during  wet  weather.     The  following  description  of  the 

method  used  is  from  the  Thirty-first  Report  of  the  Park  Commissioners 

of  San  Francisco,  June  30,  1902: 

"  Previous  to  the  use  of  oil  on  the  drive,  considerable  trouble  was 
"  experienced,  especially  on  the  Main  Drive,  with  the  accumulation  of 
"  fine  red  dust.  During  the  summer  the  prevailing  winds  carried  this  in 
"  clouds,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  pleasure  of  driving  and  the 
"  appearance  of  the  plantations  skirting  the  drive.  To  overcome  this 
"  a  force  of  men  was  required  to  water  the  drives  and  lay  the  dust,  while 
"in  winter  the  formation  of  mud  was  unavoidable;  but  with  the  use  of 
"  oil  these  unpleasant  features  have  disappeared.  While  possessing 
"many  of  the  desirable  features  of  bitumen,  an  oiled  road  is  never 
"  slippery  or  dangerous  in  wet  weather,  and  the  repair  of  road  is  com- 
"  paratively  simple  and  inexpensive.  About  six  miles  of  drive  have  been 
"  treated.  As  we  are  constantly  in  receipt  of  requests  for  information 
"on  the  method  of  preparation  and  application,  the  following  is 
"  appended: 

"  Before  oiling,  the  roadbed  should  be  carefully  prepared,  well  gradccl 
"  and  shaped,  and  the  surface  smoothed  and  packed  as  firmly  as  })ossi- 
"  ble.  If  the  roadbed  is  dry  to  a  depth  of  over  one  inch  give  it  a  thorough 
"soaking  with  water,  and  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  dry  again  apply  the 


178  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"oil  as  much  in  quantity  as  the  material  will   ahsorb.     This  lias  refer- 
"  ence  to  a  road  never  oiled  before. 

"The  roadbed  being  properly  prepared,  the  next  operation  is  the 
"  heating  of  the  oil.  Our  system  is  to  run  a  coil  of  steam  pipe  of  two 
"inches  diameter  placed  in  a  four-wheeled  sprinkling  barrel  of  six 
"  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  capacity,  with  ordinary  sprinkling  attach- 
"  ment.  Any  sprinkler  that  is  successful  in  distributing  water  will 
"  serve  the  purpose.  We  use  two  wagons — one  on  the  road,  while  the 
"  oil  in  the  other  is  heating.  Steam  for  the  heating  of  the  oil  is  fur- 
"  nished  from  the  boiler  at  the  i)umi)ing  station. 

"  The  oil  should  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  between  250°  and  300°  F. 
"  As  soon  as  it  is  heated  the  horses  should  be  started  \^^  and  driven  at 
"  a  smart  pace  to  the  prepared  roadway  and  the  oil  a])plied  much  tli<- 
"same  as  if.  sprinkling  with  water.  A  force  of  men  follows  with  rakes 
"  to  stir  in  the  dust  and  allow  the  oil  to  penetrate  the  solid  roadbed,  as 
"  much  oil  being  applied  as  the  material  will  absorl).  Should  any  pools 
"  form,  sprinkle  as  much  sand  or  dust  as  the  oil  will  take  up,  stir  with 
"  the  rake  and  in  a  few  hours  the  road  will  be  ready  for  use. 

"  In  oiling  the  road,  whether  for  the  lirst  time  or  subsequent  to  pre- 
"  vious  oiling,  we  find  it  most  convenient  and  satisfactory  for  carrj-ing 
"  on  the  work,  to  close  a  portion  of  the  roadway  or  to  fix  up  one  side  of 
"  the  road  at  a  time,  keeping  the  travel  on  the  other  side.  When  the 
"  side  operated  on  is  oiled  and  dusted,  we  turn  the  travel  on  that  side 
"  while  the  other  part  is  being  w^orked.  Under  this  plan  little  com- 
"  plaint  is  heard  from  the  traveling  public. 

"  Should  the  oiled  surface  wear  through  in  spots,  forming  little 
"  depressions,  all  that  is  necessary  to  repair  it  is  to  take  a  common 
"  stable  broom,  sweep  out  the  loose  dust  or  gravel,  fill  the  hole  wath  a 
"  little  oil,  and  spread  enough  dust  or  gravel  to  absorb  it,  care  being  taken 
"  not  to  apply  too  much,  or  the  repaired  portion  will  be  found  too 
"  soft  and  will  require  a  second  sprinkling  of  sand  or  dust  to  make  the 
"  patch  even  with  the  main  surface,  ^^^e  use  a  conmion  hand  watering 
"  pot  for  applying  the  oil  in  repair  work. 

"  The  oil  we  use  is  the  heaviest  we  can  procure  and  is  from  14°  to 
"  16°  gravity,  and  costs  72  cents  per  barrel  delivered. 

"About  four  hundred  barrels  are  required  to  coat  a  mile  of  driveway 
"  sixteen  feet  in  Avidth." 

Specifications  for  Oiling-  Streets  in  Santa  Barbara.— The  method 
of  oiling  used  at  Santa  Barbara,  in  a  rolling  country  with  rather  light 
soil,  is  shown  by  the  following  "  Specifications  for  Oiling  Streets  in  the 
City  of  Santa  Barbara": 

"Streets  to  be  oiled  shall  first  be  plowed  the  entire  width  from  gutter 
'■  to  gutter,  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches,  and  shall  then  be  gone  over  with 
"  a  harrow,  disc  or  other  suitable  machine  for  breaking  clods,  until  the 


OILED    ROADS. 


179 


"  street  is  properly  prepared  for  rounding  up  with  the  grader.  All 
"stones  shall  he  removed  from  the  streets  and  deposited  in  the  gutters. 
"After  the  surfai'e  has  heen  tlius  prepared,  the  contractor  shall  crown 
"the   street    with  a  urader,  to   he   furnislied   1)V  tlie  city  free  of  charge. 


No.  32.     Oiled  Road  Near  Santa  Barbara. 

"  Any  deficiency  of  earth  necessary  to  give  the  street  the  proper  crown 
'■  will  he  furnished  hy  the  city.  After  the  street  has  heen  properly 
'•  crowned  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  superintendent  of  streets,  it  shall 
"he  thoroughly  wetted   and   rolled  with  a  heavy  road  roller,  until  the 


Mi 

^  if   i    hM  1  ^' 


i 


X(j. 


On.f;ii  Stiiekt  in  Santa  I.arbara. 


"  surface  is  unyielding.  Depressions  made  hy  rolling  shall  he  leveled 
"up  with  good  earth  and  again  rolled.  When  the  street  has  been 
"  plowed,  graded,  and  rolled,  it  shall  then  l)e  harrowed  and  the  surface 
"  loosened   uniformly  for  a  depth  of   four  inches,  and    shall  then    he 


180  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"'  sprinkled  evenly  with  oil,  heated  to  a  temperature  of  180°  Fahren- 
"  heit.  One  hundred  barrels  of  oil  shall  be  used  for  each  block,  includ- 
"ing  one  crossing.  The  oil  shall  be  an  asphalt  base  oil  of  from  12°  to 
"  14°  gravity,  and  shall  contain  not  more  than  7%  of  water.  After  the 
"  oil  has  been  sprinkled  uniformly  over  the  surface  of  the  street,  it  shall 
"  be  thoroughly  tamped  into  the  loose  earth  with  a  tamper,  consisting  of 
"  large  iron  teeth  resembling  exaggerated  railroad  spikes  set  into  a 
"  wooden  cylinder.  This  tamping  shall  be  done  until  the  oil  and  loose 
"  earth  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  consolidated.  The  oiling  and  tamping 
"  shall  be  done  only  on  days  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  sun  is 
"  shining.  After  the  oil  and  loose  earth  are  thoroughly  mixed  and 
"  tamped,  the  surface  of  the  streets  shall  be  rolled  with  a  heavy  rollti 
"  until  the  surface  is  uniform  and  compact."  The  balance  of  the  speci- 
tications  relates  to  damages,  indemnities,  and  bonds,  all  as  customary 
in  such  matters. 

Roads  in  Kern  County. — Facts  and  figures  collected  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Highways  show  that  there  are  now  in  use  in  Kern  County  one 
hundred  miles  of  such  roads,  and  about  forty-five  miles  of  oiled  streets 
in  cities  and  towns.^ 

The  first  work  of  this  kind  by  the  Supervisors  of  that  county  was 
done  in  1901.  The  roadbeds,  varying  from  sandy  to  heavy  soils,  were 
first  graded  and  rounded  up  slightly,  and  the  oil  applied  to  a  width  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  harrow.  In 
applying  the  oil,  use  Avas  made  of  an  ordinary  Avagon  tank  Avith  a 
sprinkler  or  distributor  made  of  four-inch  gas  pipe,  with  half-inch  holes 
drilled  every  two  inches,  the  section  of  pipe  used  being  about  ten  feet 
long.  From  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  barrels  per  mile  were  used  on 
the  first  application,  the  sandy  soil  requiring  the  larger  quantity  to 
make  a  solid  surface.  After  an  interval  of  one  or  two  weeks  a  second 
application  of  from  forty  to  sixty  barrels  of  oil  per  mile  was  made,  the 
roads  having  been  traveled  in  the  meantime.  The  oil  Avas  a])plied  in 
hot  Aveather,  artificial  heating  being  considered  unnecessary. 

The  oil  used,  A^arying  in  gravity  from  12°  to  15°,  Avas  obtained  from 
the  Kern  River,  McKittrick,  and  Sunset  fields,  at  from  20  to  30  cents 
per  barrel,  the  expense  of  each  application  to  the  roads  being  from  30 
to  45  cents  per  barrel,  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  the  oil.  From  thirty 
to  fifty  barrels  per  mile  haA^e  been  used  each  year  subsequently  in  main- 
tenance and  repairs,  but  this  has  been  found  cheaper  than  maintaining 
roads  not  oiled. 

So  satisfactory  have  the  oiled  roads  of  Kern  County  proven  that 
arrangements  are  being  made  for  the  construction  of  about  fifty  miles 
more  during  this  year.     The  level  nature  of  much  of  the  country  and 

^Sacramento  "Union,"  March,  1904. 


OILKIJ    JiOADS. 


181 


Xii.  :;4.     ItuAii  ()ii,iN<,  Machine. 


Xo.  35.    Ro.\d-Saxihx(;  Machine. 


182 


PETROLEUM    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


the  nearness  of  the  oil  fields  make  Kern  County  particularly  favored 
in  the  matter  of  oiled-road  construction. 

Quality  cf  Oil.— The  quality  of  the  oil  to  he  used  in  road  work  is  a 
very  important  matter,  as  the  success  of  the  work  depends  to  a  great 
measure  on  the  suitability  of  the  oil.  As  already  noted,  the  road- 
making  value  of  the  oil  depends  on  the  extent  to  which  it  is  converted 
into  asphalt,  the  latter  binding  together  the  loose  grains  of  sand  or 
other  material  into  a  tenacious  mass,  just  as  the  asphalt  of  a  city  pave- 
ment Innds  the  wearing  surface  into  a  smooth  and  solid  sheet.  The 
liquid  portions  of  the  oil  have  no  value  as  a  binder,  so  long  as  they 
remain  liquid,  their  only  effect  on  the  road  being  to  lay  the  dust  for  "a 
time,  as  would  water. 

For  the  present  purpose,  the  black  (asphaltic)  petroleums  of  Califoi- 
nia  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  parts:  a  liquid  portion,  mainly  hydro- 
carbons, and  a  small  proportion  of  asphalt,  from  1%  up  to  7%,  dissolved 
in  the  li(iuid  part.  There  are  also  bodies  containing  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
and  oxygen,  but  so  far  as  the  present  subject  is  concerned,  these  may 
be  classed  with  the  liquid  hydrocarbons. 

When  a  crude  petroleum  of  this  nature  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
air,  it  commences  to  thicken,  and  will  gradually  become  sticky,  then 
hard  and  glossy,  finally  dry  and  brittle,  falling  ultimately  (in  month.- 
or  years)  into  a  brown  powder.  This  cycle  of  changes  takes  place  mor^- 
rapidly  in  dry  than  in  moist  air,  more  rapidly  when  warm  than  wheri 
cold,  and  much  more  rapidly  in  sunlight  than  in  darkness  or  shade. 
The  thickening  is  due  to  two  causes :  the  evaporation  of  the  lighter 
portion  of  the  liquid  fraction,  and  the  conversion  of  the  remainder  into 
asphalt  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  or  by  the  removal  of  hydrogen, 
which  are  much  the  same  thing  ultimately. 

Asphalt  in  Crude  Oil.  — As  the  asphalt  is  the  only  portion  of  the  oil 
valua])le  in  rt)ad-making,  the  value  of  any  particular  oil  for  this  pur- 
pose will  depend  on  the  percentage  of  asphalt  originally  contained,  and 
also  on  the  percentage  of  the  oil  converted  into  asphalt  during  the 
drying  process.  The  percentage  of  asphalt  originally  contained  is 
easily  approximated  by  i)recipitating  the  asphaltene  by  means  of  gaso- 
line, weighing,  and  multiplying  by  four,  the  proportion  of  asphaltenr 
in  "D"  asplialt  from  oil  being  quite  constant  at  about  25%.  The  per- 
centage of  the  liquid  portion  whicli  will  change  into  asphalt  on  drying 
we  can  only  estimate  approximately,  as  to  allow  a  sample  to  harden 
takes  too  long  a  time  for  practical  testing,  and  we  can  not  be  sure  that 
any  forced  evaporation  gives  the  same  results  as  would  be  had  from 
spontaneous  drying. 

Testing.— Probably  the  best,  certainly  the  simplest,  test  of  the  road- 
making  value  of  an  oil  is  to  evaporate  a  weighed  sample  in  an  open 


OILKD    HOAD? 


18;^ 


No.  36.     Asphalt  Mixk,  Caupixteria,  Cal. 


Xo.  37.     Asphalt  ^fiNi:,  McKittrick,  Cal. 


184 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


metal  dish,  down  to  the  hardness  of  commercial  "D"  asphalt,  and 
weigh  the  residue.  We  thus  get  at  once  both  the  original  asi)halt  and 
that  formed  during  evaporation,  and  while  it  is  not  likely  that  the  per- 
centage of  asi)halt  thus  obtained  is  the  same  as  would  be  gotten  by 
allowing  the  oil  to  dry  in  the  sun,  yet  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 
comparison  between  different  oils  thus  made  is  accurate.  This  test 
requires  no  apparatus  except  an  iron  or  coi)per  pan,  a  scale,  and  a 
plumber's  fire-pot,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  even  grading  of 
the  asphalt  requires  care  and  a  little  skill. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  in  testing  a  number  of  California 
oils,  and  two  or  three  others,  by  this  method,  and  show  the  wide  range 
of  values  of  different  oils  for  this  purpose  : 


TABLE  22.     COMPARISON  OF    ROAD-MAKING  VALUE  OF  CRUDE  OILS. 


No. 


Source. 


Gravity. 


Asphalt. 


No. 


Gravity. 


Asphalt. 1 


1464 
1400 
1407 
2441 

2438 
2402 
2426 
2442 
2433 

495 
2424 
2448 

494 
1421 
2450 
1482 
1403 


Colorado 

Canada 

Coalinga 

Fullerton 

Fullerton 

Kansa.s 

Puente 

Ventura  

Ventura 

Wyoming 

Fullerton 

Whittier 

Beaumont.  Tex 

Coalinga 

Whittier 

Midway "_. 

McKittrick 


(leg.  Be. 
41.3 

34.9 

33.3 

33.0 

.32.8 

.31.4 

28.0 

28.0 

26.8 

23.7 

23;3 

23.1 

22.6 

21.2 

20.4 

20.2 

18.9 


per  cent. 
None. 

None. 

Trace. 
19.1 
20.4 

None. 
26.1 
29.5 
13.1 
33.7 
36.5 
23.3 
11.0 
25.0 
.30.2 
22.0 
22.6 


2452 
2432 
2462 
2437 

487 
2445- 
2453 
2463 
2440 
2444 
2496 
1432 
2454 
2495 
2405 

486 
2400 


Coalinga 

Sargents 

Newhall 

Midway 

Kern  River.. . 

Fullerton 

Coalinga 

Los  Angeles  _. 

Coalinga 

McKittrick  ... 
Kern  River. .. 

Sunset 

Newhall 

Los  Angeles  .. 

Coalinga 

Sunset 

Santa  Barbara 


(leg.  Be. 
18.7 

18.6 

17.2 

17.1 

17.0 

1.5.9 

15.9 

15.7 

15.7 

15.1 

14.3 

14.1 

13.9 

13.0 

11.9 

9.9 

9.0 


per  cent. 
24.7 

41.3 

28.9 

40.5 

25.0 

45.9 

35.5 

25.7 

30.4 

27.8 

48.5 

29.2 

52.4 

42.2 

33.2 

61.8 

85.5 


1  The  figures  in  these  columns  are  considered  to  he  accurate  to  within  three  per  cent. 

Valuation. — These  examples  might  be  greatly  multiplied,  but  the 
few  here  given  are  suflicient  to  show  that  the  road-making  value  of  the 
oil  is  very  roughly  if  at  all  indicated  by  the  gravity,  and  that  the  latter 
is  not  in  any  sense  a  proper  test,  as  the  percentage  of  valuable  matter 
varies  widely  in  oils  of  the  same  gravity  from  different  fields,  or  even . 
in  some  cases,  with  oils  from  neighboring  -wells.  The  unsuitability  of 
])articular  oils  for.  road-making  has  been  found,  in  a  good  many 
instances,  by  costly  experience,  but  it  would  seem  more  rational  to  test 
all  such  oils  as  were  availal>le  at  reasona1)li'  cost   in   the   localitv  where 


CALIFORNIA    OIL-REFINING    INDl'STRY.  185 

work  is  to  be  done,  and  to  select  the  most  suitable  oil  even  at  an 
advanced  price.  If  an  oil  shows  on  careful  testing  (each  sample  should 
be  tested  twice,  at  least)  say  forty  per  cent  of  asj)halt,  to  twenty  per  cent 
from  another  oil,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  forty  per  cent  oil  is  nearly  if 
not  quite  twice  as  valuable,  barrel  for  barrel,  as  the  twenty  ])er  cent  oil, 
and  would  be  more  economical  in  the  lonu;  run  if  it  coiild  \)v  delivered 
for  less  than  twice  the  price.  Fortunately  the  oils  most  suitable  to  use  in 
road-making-  are,  in  general,  those  of  least  value  for  other  purposes,  and 
can  as  a  rule  l)e  had  at  the  lowest  market  price,  so  tliat  intelligent  exami- 
nation of  the  oils  offered  will  often  save  money,  not  only  in  the  long  run, 
but  even  on  the  innnediate  cost  of  the  material. 

Dirt  in  the  oil  is  no  drawback,  except  that  it  is  valueless  and  dis- 
places its  bulk  of  oil,  unless  so  much  be  present  as  to  clog  the  outlets  of 
the  distril)Uting  machines.  Water  also  is  permissible  up  to  a  reasonable 
amount:  up  to  five  per  cent  or  even  more  it  does  no  harm  except  to  dis- 
place its  Inilk  of  oil.  The  percentage  of  water  and  of  sediment  is  easily 
found  by  the  test  given  for  fuel  oils  in  Chapter  4. 

Residuum. — The  residuum  from  petroleum  refineries  handling  Cali- 
fornia oil  is,  if  sufficiently  reduced,  often  very  suitable  for  this  use.  It 
sliould  be  tested  as  a  crude  oil,  and  has  the  same  value  in  relation  to 
its  percentage  of  asphalt.  In  some  situations  it  may  be  had  within 
carting  distance  of  work  to  be  done,  and  if  charged  into  wagons  at  a 
high  temperature  will  retain  its  heat,  in  warm  weather,  for  several 
hours. 


CHAPTER  15. 

CALIFORNIA'S  OIL-REFINING  INDUSTRY. 

The  business  of  refining  petroleum,  while  of  many  years'  standing  in 
this  State,  having  originated  in  1856,  has  come  into  commercial  promi- 
nence only  within  the  last  few  years.  Ten  years  ago  there  were  in 
California  but  two  refineries  worthy  of  note,  that  of  the  Pacific  Coast 
Oil  Company  at  West  Alameda,  and  that  of  the  Union  Oil  Company  of 
California,  then  lately  removed  from  Santa  Paula  to  Rodeo.  During 
this  time  the  former  institution  has  been  merged  in  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  which  has  removed  the  plant  to  Point  Richmond,  where  it 
has  been  reconstructed  on  a  much  larger  scale,  while  the  latter  plant 
has  also  been  much  enlarged  and  improved.  In  addition,  other  plants 
have  from  time  to  time  been  erected,  until  there  are  now  within  the 
limits  of  the  State  some  thirtv-four  oil    refineries,  with   a  gross   still 


186  PKTROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

capacity  appvoximatino;  l>7,500  barrels,  all  of  which  plants,  with  possi- 
bly one  or  two  exce])tions,  are  now  in  successful  operation. 

Oil  refining  in  California  is  divided  into  two  very  distinct  classes: 
the  refining  of  light  oil  for  the  production  of  the  usual  line  of  products, 
as  made  elsewhere;  and  the  distilling  of  heavy  asphaltic  oil,  the  pro- 
duction of  asphalt  being  here  the  main  feature.  The  former  operation 
uses  the  lightest  oil  obtainable,  the  larger  the  proportion  of  volatile 
elements  the  more  profitable  being  the  handling.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  latter  operation  seeks  the  heaviest  of  the  crude  oils,  or  rather  those 
containing  the  largest  proportion  of  asphalt,  the  distillates  in  this  case 
being  of  very  little  commercial  value.  Between  the  heavy  asphalt  oils 
and  the  light  "  refining ''  oils  there  is  an  intermediate  class,  ranginu' 
roughly  from  16°  to  20°  in  gravity,  which  are  little  if  at  all  refined. 
As  is  well  known,  the  gravity  of  a  crude  oil  is  only  the  roughest  indica- 
tion as  to  its  value  for  refining,  and  the  limits  above  given  must  be 
taken  in  a  very  general  w^ay,  there  being  a  number  of  crudes  falling 
within  these  limits  which  are  of  some  value  for  refining  purposes.  As 
the  two  classes  of  refining  operations  mentioned  above  are  essentiall}^ 
distinct,  it  may  be  better  to  consider  them  separately. 

Ligcht  Oil  Refining'. — The  lighter  crude  oils  of  California  are  divided 
into  the  usual  line  of  products:  several  gasolines  and  naphthas  or 
"distillates,'"  the  latter  being,  in  this  sense,  a  cant  term  applied  to 
naphthas  lying  between  benzine  and  the  burning  oils,  and  ranging  in 
gravity  from  56°  to  40°  Be.;  burning  oils;  "stove  oil,"  a  straw  to  amber 
colored  oil  of  35°  or  lower,  used  for  fuel  in  gasifying  stove  burners; 
paint  oils,  used  for  adulteration  principally,  and  other  special  products 
in  this  class;  gas  distillates,  of  30°  to  28"^'  gravity,  used  in  carburctting 
water  gas;  fuel  distillate,  of  28°  to  24°  gravity,  used  as  fuel  in  the  same 
manner  as  crude  oil;  and  the  lighter  lubricating  oils.  Some  difficulty 
has  been  experienced  with  the  heavier  lubricants,  and  the  paraffin 
products  are  entirely  absent.  The  residue  is,  in  almost  all  cases,  of  an 
asphaltic  nature,  and  in  only  a  few  works  is  it  converted  into  coke. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  list  of  the  commoner  products  of  petro- 
leum, as  made  in  this  State,  with  remarks  as  to  quality,  market  con- 
ditions, and  })rice.  As  to  the  latter,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  figures 
given  are  only  a  very  rough  approximation,  it  being  very  evident  that 
current  quotations,  local  conditions,  quality  of  goods,  and  a  dozen 
other  factors  will  inffuence  the  price  received  for  any  of  these  articles: 


CALIFORNIA   OIL-REFINING   INDUSTRY 


187 


TABLE  23.     LIST  OF  REFINED    PRODUCTS. 


Degrees 
Be. 

Priee- 

-Cents. 

Quality. 

RfinurkH. 

Per 
Gallon. 

Per 
Barrel. 

liasoline 

68 

62 

56  to  40 

44  to  42 
42  to  40 
35  to  32 
30  to  28 
28  to  24 
24  to  22 
24  to  20 
20  to  18 
18  to  15 

17  to  15 

16 
13 

1    7  to  10 

? 
4  to  5 

6  to  10 

8  to  14 

14  to  20 

20  to  50 

24  to  5 

The  best 

The  best.... 
Excellent ... 

Good   mer- 
chantable. 
Fair  to  poor. 

Satisfactory. 

Good 

Good 

Good 

Good 

Good  to  fair. 

Poor 

Good 

Market  excellent. 
Market  fair. 

Made  in  many  grades  and 
sold  under  many  fancy  names. 
Market  good  and  iiu-reasing. 

^larket  good. 

Some  export  market. 
Market  mnch  oversupplied. 

Stove  Oil 

t 

Gas  Oil 

Fuel  Distillate 

100 
60  to  100 

Demand  decreasing. 

Some  market  at  price  given. 
Large  outlet  at  price  crude  oil. 
Small  market. 

Fair  and  growing  demand. 

Fair  market,  growing  stead- 

ily- 
Do  not,  as  a  rule,  meet  mar- 

< rude  Lubricants, 

ket  requirements. 
Demand  oversupplied. 

Asphalts,  of  various  grades— about  i^l4.(Xi  per  ton— market  rather  oversupplied.  but 
rapidly  increasing. 

Qualities  of  Commercial  Products. — Tlie  Gasolines  produced  in 
California  are  undoubtedly  of  the  very  highest  grade.  AVith  the  excep- 
tion of  the  heaviest  engine  distillates,  they  are  strictly  water-white,  and 
hold  their  color  Avell.  The  odor  is  sweet  and  ethereal,  the  odor  of  the 
lighter  grades  reminding  strongly  of  sulphuric  ether,  and  they  are  free 
from  the  offensive  after-odor  of  the  gasolines  of  Pennsylvania.  They 
volatilize  freely,  and  leave  very  little  residue  when  passed  in  quantity 
through  vaporizers.  At  the  same  gravity  they  boil  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  Eastern  gasolines,  and  volatilize  more  rapidly  when  exposed 
to  the  air,  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  Western  gasoline  amounting  to 
from  2^  to  4°  in  gravity;  that  is,  a  California  gasoline  of  68^  gravity 
will  approximate  the  same  boiling  range  and  speed  of  evaporation  as  a 
Pennsylvania  gasoline  of  from  70°  to  72"  gravity. 

Engine  Distillates  can  be  distinguished  from  the  gasolines  only  by  an 
imaginary  line;  the  lightest  distillates,  prepared  for  small  engines, 
automobiles,  etc.,  run  well  up  into  the  sixties  in  gravity,  while  the 
heaviest  are  intended  to  replace  kerosene  in  engines  prepared  especially 
for  that  fuel.  As  a  rule,  they  are  less  rigorously  treated  than  gasolines 
or  kerosene  of  the  same  gravity,  and  they  differ,  in  the  lower  members 


loo  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

from  kerosene,  in  that  no  attention  is  paid  to  flash  point.  The  lighter 
distillates  are  usually  nearly  or  quite  water-white,  but  some  of  the 
heavier  distillates  are  turned  out  in  standard  white  shades,  there 
appearing  to  be  but  little  difference  in  their  actual  value  where  identi- 
cal except  as  to  color.  On  account  of  their  greater  specific  gravity 
they  have  a  slightly  higher  fuel  value  than  Eastern  gasolines,  and 
because  of  a  higher  carlion  percentage  require  a  little  more  air  to  secure 
perfect  combustion. 

Kerosene. — It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  burning  oils  prepared 
from  California  crude  are  not  of  the  highest  quality.  While  the  color 
can  be  made  entirely  satisfactory,  and  the  odor  is  sweet  and  if  anything 
less  unpleasant  than  that  of  Pennsylvania  kerosene,  the  burning 
qualities  are  not  equal  to  those  of  the  best  Eastern  oils,  the  flame  being 
less  white,  and  there  being  more  tendency  to  smoke  and  to  crust  the 
wick.  These  faults  have  been  variously  ascribed  to  sulphur,  to  nitro- 
gen, even  to  silica  (!),  and  to  asphalt  remaining  in  the  finished 
oil,  but  there  seems  some  reason  to  think  that  the  trouble  is  due 
rather  to  the  nature  of  the  hydrocarbons  constituting  the  body  of 
the  kerosene.  As  there  has  been  much  argument  on  this  subject,  it 
would  be  in  poor  taste  to  insist  too  strongly  on  an  opinion,  but  it  may 
be  pointed  out  that  the  amount  of  sulphur  found  in  the  best  California 
kerosenes,  by  combustion,  is  extremely  small;  that  it  has  not  been  shown 
that  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  any  amount  would  cause  smoking  and 
yellowness  of  flame;  that  the  nitrogen  is  entirely  removed  in  the  acid 
treatment;  and  that  asphalt  is  a  non-volatile  substance,  not  likely  to  be 
present  in  a  distillate  unless  by  accident.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
evident  from  mere  consideration  of  the  relation  between  specific  gravity 
and  boiling  points  of  California  kerosene,  that  the  hydrocarbons 
making  up  the  body  of  the  oil  are  of  entirely  different  nature  from  those 
found  in  Pennsylvania  kerosene,  and  it  has  been  shown  by  other  methods 
that  these  hydrocarbons  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  carbon  and  a 
smaller  percentage  of  hydrogen  than  do  the  hydrocarbons  in  the  Eastern 
oil.  As  the  amount  of  air  required  to  burn  an  oil  completely  increases 
with  the  increase  of  carbon  percentage,  the  excess  of  carbon  in  our  local 
oils  explains  the  tendency  to  yellow  or  smoky  flame,  the  color  of  the 
flame  indicating  merely  that  the  air  supply  is  insufficient  to  completely 
consume  the  oil. 

If  it  l)e  true  that  the  comparatively  low  grade  of  local  kerosene  is 
due  to  the  nature  of  the  hydrocarbons  of  which  it  is  composed,  rather 
than  to  the  presence  of  impurities,  the  evil  probably  does  not  admit  of 
any  remedy,  as  no  chemical  treatment  would  alter  the  constitution  of 
the  oil  itself.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  a  great  deal  of  the  trouble 
met  with  California  kerosene  in  the  past  has  been  due  to  imperfect 
refining,  substances  having  been  left  in  the  oil  which  could  and  should 


CALIFORNIA    OIL-REFINING    INDUSTRY.  189 

have  been  removed.  Where  California  kerosene  is  properly  refined 
it  is  of  good  second  quality,  not  equal  to  the  best  of  the  Eastern  oils, 
l)ut  fully  equal  to  the  oils  from  various  sources  sold  under  the  general 
name  of  "  bulk  oil."  Further,  the  difficulty  is  largely  one  of  adjust- 
ment of  air  supply,  and  as  the  market  becomes  accustomed  to  local  oil, 
as  it  will  with  increasing  output,  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that 
our  product  will  be  used  Avith  entire  satisfaction  to  the  consumer.  A 
great  change  for  the  better  in  this  respect  has  taken  place  within  the 
last  three  years,  the  output  of  kerosene  on  the  Pacific  Coast  having 
largely  increased,  and  with  this  increase  of  output  the  prejudice  against 
local  oil  has  greatly  diminished.  A  large  proportion  of  the  oil  now 
used  in  California  is  supplied  by  local  refineries,  and  it  is  probable  that 
within  a  few  years  almost  the  entire  market  will  be  so  supplied. 

Gumming  or  incrustation  of  the  wick  may  be  due  to  several  causes, 
Ijut  the  one  most  likely  to  bring  about  this  result  is  the  attempt  to  run 
too  heavy  a  distillate  into  the  kerosene.  The  oils  running  at  from  S7'~' 
to  35°  gravity  may  often  be  forced  into  the  kerosene  without  lowering 
the  gravity  of  the  finished  article  below  42°,  but  these  oils  are  so  little 
volatile  that  they  have  a  strong  tendency  to  decompose  in  the  wick, 
from  the  heat  of  the  flame,  without  completely  gasifying.  This  decom- 
position forms  a  body  similar  to  asphalt,  and  ultimately  carbonizes  the 
wick,  stopping  the  flow  of  oil,  and  thus  lowering  and  distorting  the 
flame.  The  remedy  is  to  cut  the  kerosene  within  narrower  limits, 
either  raising  the  gravity,  or  keeping  the  gravity  even  by  cutting  out  an 
equivalent  part  of  the  lightest  portion.  Gumming  may  also  be  due  to 
imperfect  removal  of  the  original  impurities  in  the  oil,  or  to  decompo- 
sition of  the  oil  by  overheating  after  treatment. 

California  kerosene  as  now  turned  out  by  the  better  class  of  refineries 
is  a  water-white  oil,  of  a  SAveet  odor,  gravity  from  42°  to  44°  Be., 
viscosity  about  1.10,  flash  point  from  111°  to  122°  F.,  burning  point 
some  10°  to  12°  higher.  As  a  rule,  it  distills  within  considerably 
narrower  limits  of  temperature  than  does  Eastern  kerosene. 

Lubricants. — The  lubricating  oils  prepared  from  California  crude  are 
of  rather  uncertain  status  as  to  quality.  The  lighter  oils  appear  to  be 
very  satisfactory,  but  the  heavier  oils  do  not  seem  to  have  been  able  to 
take  their  proper  place  in  the  market.  The  color  and  odor  are  satis- 
factory; the  flash  points  are  low  as  a  rule;  the  viscosity  may  be  pro- 
duced as  desired,  but  rapidly  decreases  with  rising  temperature,  this 
being,  indeed,  the  principal  objection  to  their  use;  the  cold  test  is  very 
low.  The  following  table  shows  the  principal  characteristics  of  several 
California  lubricating  oils.  It  should  be  noted  that  no  two  refineries 
turn  out  their  lubricating  oils  according  to  exactly  the  same  specifi- 
cations, and  that  for  this  reason  tlie  figures  given  for  each  grade  arc 
suggestive  only.     These  oils  are  all  pure  mineral  stocks. 


190 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 
TABLE  24.     PROPERTIES  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS. 


Oil. 


Ice  Macliine. 

Spindle 

Dynamo 

Machine 

Engine 

Engine 

Cylinder 


2486 
1416 
2487 
4.56 
141.1 
2489 
1442 


Gravity 
•Be. 

Viscosity 

at 

60°  F. 

Viscosity 

at  18.5°    1 

to  200°  F.  I 

23.1 

4.2 

LI 

21.. 5 

9.5 

L2 

21.2 

12.2 

L2 

19.5 

14.6 

1.6 

19.2 

.30.5 

2.1 

19.4 

103.7 

2.3 

13.5 

25.21 

1.9 

Flash. 
°F. 


334 
309 
:^54 
335 
378 
430 
455 


Fire. 
°F. 


361 
35<) 
406 
360 
430 
471 
515 


Cold  Test. 
•F. 


—12 
Below  0°  F. 

1 

Below  0°  F. 

15 

20 

28 


1  At  lu(i°  F. 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  figures  that  these  oils  lose  their  vis- 
cosity almost  completely  at  from  185°  to  200°  F.,  and  if  this  property 
is,  as  is  highly  probable,  inherent  in  the  nature  of  the  hydrocarbons,  it 
can  not  be  overcome.  But  against  this  property  must  be  set  the  low 
cold  test,  and  the  attendant  ease  of  manufacture.  While  it  is  possible 
that,  for  some  uses,  the  oils  of  the  Pacific  Coast  will  never  be  suitable, 
there  seems  no  reason  why.  when  properly  prepared,  they  should  not 
be  entirely  satisfactory  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  Though  there  has 
been,  and  is,  much  prejudice  against  these  oils,  the  output  is  growing 
steadily,  and  it  seems  almost  certain  that  in  time  they  will  take  their 
proper  place  in  the  market.  It  is  doubtful  whether  an  entirely  satis- 
factory cylinder  oil  can  ever  be  made  from  these  crude  oils. 

Heavy  Distillates. — The  products  intermediate  between  kerosene  and 
the  lul)rieating  oils  are  of  uncertain  properties.  Stove  oil,  a  heavy 
kerosene,  is  made  to  a  certain  extent,  for  use  in  gasifying  burners  in 
household  and  hotel  stoves  and  ranges.  A  great  number  of  devices  for 
this  purpose  have  been  placed  on  the  market,  and  a  few  of  these  have 
had  a  small  measure  of  success,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
search  for  a  really  satisfactory  1:)urner  for  household  use  seems  to  have 
advanced  very  little  during  the  past  three  years.  These  devices  are  all 
difficult  to  regulate  and  to  keep  in  order,  they  all  produce  more  or  less 
smoke,  and  are  liable  to  sudden  and  annoying  failures.  In  large 
restaurant  and  hotel  kitchens,  where  strong  fires  are  kept  going  con- 
tinuously, they  are  more  satisfactory,  as  the  skill  available  for  regulat- 
ing and  keeping  them  in  order  is  generally  of  a  higher  class  than  in  a 
})rivate  family. 

Distillates  for  gas  enriching  have  been  used  to  a  large  extent,  but  dur- 
ing the  last  two  years  the  demand  has  diminished  considerably,  owing 
to  the  introduction  of  processes  using  crude  oil.  Chapter  13  gives  some 
details  as  to  this  subject. 


C'ALIFORMA    OH. -REFINING    INDl'STHY.  IDl 

The  distillates  sold  or  used  for  fuel  are  generally  mixtures  of  oils 
otherwise  unsalable,  and  the  eharaeteristies  naturally  vary  somewhat 
widely.  In  general  they  run  from  24°  to  28°  gravity,  and  should  Hash 
at  120°  F.  or  above.  They  are  an  excellent  fuel.  Some  attempts  have 
been  made  to  use  them  in  gasoline  engines  e<iuipped  with  generators, 
such  as  are  used  Avith  Coalinga  crude  oil,  l)ut  without  nuich  success, 
owing  to  the  diflficulty  of  gasifying  them  completely. 

Out  of  this  general  fraction  are  also  worked  oils  for  s})raying  plants, 
used  for  this  purpose  both  straight  and  in  enuilsion  with  other  sub- 
stances, and  various  neutral  oils  for  paint-mixing,  etc.  The  total 
demand  for  oils  of  this  class,  aside  from  fuel  distillates,  is  very  small. 

"  Reflning-  Oils." — As  noted  above,  California  crude  oils  are  divided 
into  two  classes:  those  suitable  for  refining  for  light  products,  and  those 
unsuitable  for  refining,  or  useful  only  for  asphalt  production.  The 
refinability  of  an  oil  is  a  matter  of  comparison  only,  all  our  oils  pro- 
ducing some  products  more  valuable  than  the  crude,  and  there  being 
nothing  to  prevent  the  refining  of  any  of  them,  if  the  percentage  of 
valuable  elements  justifies  the  handling.  But  in  general  the  light-oil 
refiners  demand  an  oil  of  20°  or  lighter,  while  the  asphalt  refiners  can 
not  use  anything  lighter  than  15.5°  Be.  None  of  the  crude  oils  of  Cali- 
fornia are  equal,  for  refining  purposes,  to  the  oils  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio,  the  percentage  of  the  lighter  products  being  on  the  average  much 
smaller,  but  owing  to  local  conditions  (that  is,  to  the  high  prices  real- 
ized locally  for  petroleum  products)  many  oils  can  be  profitably  refined 
here  which  could  not  be  touched  in  less  favored  localities. 

The  following  analyses  Avere  made  at  various  times,  and  with  different 
objects,  so  that  they  do  not  follow  exactly  the  same  lines.  They  indi- 
cate, hoAvever,  in  a  general  Avay,  the  commercial  capabilities  of  various 
grades  of  California  oils,  and  coA'er  fairly  well  the  entire  range  of  qual- 
ities of  oil  found.  The  analyses  marked  "A"  are  of  samples  from  Avells 
Avith  paying  production,  or  from  tank  mixtures,  while  those  marked 
"B"  are  from  seepages  or  very  small  wells,  and  do  not  represent  actual 

production: 

B  1429.     Bittepwatep,  San  Benito  County. 

Well — Nonpareil  Petroleum  Co.     Gravity,  42.7°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  Cent. 

Gasoline ...  68°  Be.  10.0 

Engine  distillate .58  10.0 

Engine  distillate 53  10.0 

Kerosene 44  35.0 

Stove  oil 3r>  15.0 

Lubricants 19.7  IQ.'A 

Loss ...  0.7 

100.0 
This  is  a  greenish  oil,  containing  traces  of  paraffin.     The  greasy  residue  contains 
traces  of  asphalt.     Oil  of  similar  character  was  found  at  various  points  through  this 
county,  but  no  paying  i)r((diicti()n  was  developed. 

13— BUL.  82 


192 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


WeH.     Gravity,  4L7°  Be. 
Gasoline - 


B  430.     San  Mateo  County. 


Gravity. 
71°  Be. 


Benzine - - -- 63 

Engine  distillate 53 

Kerosene 43 

Stove  oil 33 

Lubrican  ts 27 

Black  grease -- 

Loss -  -     -  - 


Percent. 

8.6 

12.9 

25.5 

23.6 

11.1 

8.0 

7.0 

3.3 


100.0 


This  is  a  greenish  oil  containing  traces  of  paraffin,  and  seems  to  be  allied  more 
closely  to  the  paraffin  oils  than  most  of  the  petroleums  of  California.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, a  true  paraffin  oil.  Several  oils  of  higher  gravity,  but  of  the  same  general  nature, 
have  been  found  in  this  district. 


B  442.     Moody's  Gulch,  Santa  Clara  County. 

Well— Golden  Gate  Petroleum  Co.     Gravity,  38.0°  Be. 

Gravity. 

Engine  distillate 56°  Be. 

Kerosene 44 

Gas  oil 32 


Paraffin, 
Coke  -- 
Loss 


olid 


Per  Cent. 

25.0 

38.1 

33.9 

0.3 

2.1 

0.6 


100.0 
This  oil  appears  to  be  very  closely  allied  to  the  true  paraffin  oils.     There  was  at  one 
time  considerable  production,  the  average  being  somewhat  lighter  than   the  sample 
above,  but  the  output  for  the  past  two  or  tliree  years  has  been  practically  nothing. 

A  411.     Coalinga,  Fresno  County. 

Tank  average— Oil  City  district.     Gravity,  .33.9°  Be. 


Gravitv.  Per  Cent. 

Gasoline 75°  Be 0.9 

Benzine 63  4.1 

Engine  distillate 53  6.4 

Engine  distillate .- ■        

Kerosene 45  9.8 

Kerosene 41  26.0 

Middlings -_  

Lubricants ..  

Residue Liquid .52.8 


Per  Cent. 


50°  Be.--- 

-.-  25.7 

44 

.--  10.0 

40 

...  16.0 

32 

'...  24.8 

22 

...  18.0 

Pasty  -.- 

...     6.0 

1(H).0 


A  420.     Coalinga,  Fresno  County. 

Tank  average— Oil  City  district.     Gravity,  33.4°  Be. 

Gravity. 

Gasoline 73°  Be. 

Engine  distillate 57 

Engine  distillate 49 

Kerosene 41 

Stove  oil 34 

Gas  oil -  28 

Fuel  distillate 25 

Lubricant 23 

Residite Pasty 

Loss. - . 


100.0 


Per  Cent. 
2.3 
3.2 
19.1 

28.6 

10.3 

9.9 

10.3 

10.4 

4.7 

1.2 


100.0 


This  green  oil  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  seepage  oil  from  Colusa  County,  the 
farthest  removed  in  its  properties  from  the  paraffin  oils  of  any  petroleum  in  the  State. 
This  sample  is  practically  identical  with  the  one  preceding,  and  the  three  analyses 
show  different  methods  of  handling  the  same  crude. 


CALIFORNIA    <>IL-HEFIN1N({    TNDUSTKY.  193 

A  1431.     Coalinga,  Fresno  County. 

Tank  average— ''top  isiind  oil."     (iravity, 'Jti.u°  [{e. 

(iravity.  Percent. 

Gasoline 71°  Be.  0.52 

Benzine 60  7.96 

Kngine  distillate 50  3.90 

Kerosene 44  15.30 

Stoveoil 31  15.00 

Fuel  distillate 40  13.30 

Lubricant 23  17.94 

Lubrican  t 15  4. 72 

Asphalt Grade  "D"  17.00 

Losses .  _  4.36 

100.00 
This  is  a  black  oil,  and  resembles  the  lighter  oils  of  Fullerton  and  of  Ventura  County. 

Gravity  for  gravity,  the  southern  oils  give  a  somewhat  better  analysis  than  Coalinga 
oils,  as  a  rule. 

A  412.     Ventura  County. 

Pipe-line  average.     Gravity,  2«.(i°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  Cent. 

Gasolines— total 63°  Be.  10.4 

Kerosene . 42.5  28.0 

Gasoil 28  16.1 

Lubricant 23  20.3 

Asphalt . ..  23.7 

Loss :.     ..  1.5 

100.0 
A  435.     Ventura  County. 

Pipe-line  average.     Gravity,  25.2°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  Cent. 

Engine  distillate .55°  Be.  14.5 

Kerosene 42  13.8 

Stove  oil 33  14.4 

Fuel  distillate 26  22.8 

Lubricant 21  16.0 

Asphalt Soft,  pasty  14.9 

Loss ..  3.6 

100.0 
Both  these  oils,  like  many  other  of  the  oils  produced  in  this  district,  contain  a  trace 

of  paraffin.     These  pipe-line  averages  include  all  but  the  very  heaviest  of  the  oils  pro- 
duced in  Ventura  County,  and  the  outi)Ut  of  oil  heavier  than  20°  is  inconsiderable. 

A  1416.     Coalinga,  Fresno  County. 

Pijie-line  average — "  Ora  Crude."     Gravity,  2(l.tj°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  Cent. 

Gasoline 81°  Be.  0.15 

Gasoline 74  0.46 

Benzine 63  0.94 

PZngine  distillate 54  2..S4 

Kerosene 42  11.47 

Stove  oil 33  1.88 

Gasoil 31  32.24 

Gasoil 28  3.43 

Fuel  distillate 26  5.06 

Lubricant 22  17.88 

Lubricant 17  4.84 

Lubricant 15  \Mi 

Asphalt Grade  "B"  13.:i4 

Losses ..  4.36 

10().00 


194  I'KTKOLEFJM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

A  492.     Coalinga,  Fresno  County. 

Piin--line  average — "Ora  Crude."     Gravity,  '-'(•.2°  He. 

(iravity.  I'it  Cent. 

Engine  distillate                               r)4°  He.  4.;^4 

Kerosene 41. :h  7.69 

Gas  distillate 'M  18.5<> 

Fuel  distillate - 2(i  20.6;> 

Lubricant 22  7.2(> 

Lubricant 16.5  4.20 

Lubricant 15.4  Uy.m 

Asphalt .■ ..Grade"!)"  22.70 

Losses ..  8.03 

l(Kt.(H» 

The  above  oils,  which  are  practically  identical,  represent  the  average  output  of  the 
eastern  i>ortion  of  the  Coalinga  field. 

B  456.     Colusa  County. 

Seepage  oil.     Gravity,  1.5,2°  Be. 

Viscosity.  Gravity. 

Distillate ..--    "  24.5°  He. 

Lubricant . , '. 2.18  19.0 

T^ubricant 4.50  l(t.5 

Lubricant ". 10.00  1.5.0 

Lubricant ..  10.21— 76°  F.         11.0 

Lubricant 42.02  Si>.  Gr.,  1.02.S 

Asphaltic  residue Grade  •'  V" 

Loss 

100.0 
This  is  a  very  remarkable  oil,  different  from  anything  else  in  the  State,  aside  from 
this  immediate  locality,  and  from  other  oils  of  which  analyses  have  been  published.  It 
maybe  distilled  freely,  without  steam  or  vacuum  being  used,  and  with  little  or  no 
decomposition.  The  gravity  of  a  distillate,  from  ordinary  California  crude,  having  the 
lioiling  points  of  the  tirst  fraction  above,  would  be  about  33°  to  35°.  This  petroleum 
appears  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  aromatic  hydrocarbons;  the  high  specific  gravity. 
1.028,  of  the  last  fraction,  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the  hydrocarbons,  not  to  asphalt  or 
other  foreign  substances,  as  it  is  quite  clear,  and  transparent  in  moderately  thin  layers. 
Compare  this  analysis  with  that  of  the  sample  below,  wliicli  was  handled  in  alnio>t 
the  same  manner. 


A  422.     Summerland,  Santa  Barbara  County. 

Tank  average.     Gravity,  14.0°  Be. 

(iravity.  I'orCciit. 

Engine  distillate 48°  Be.  0.1 

Kerosene 41  3.0 

Stoveoil  33  4.0 

Gasoil 28  lt).3 

Fuel  distillate 25  lit.l 

Lubricants 2L5  2o.4 

Asphalt -- Grade -'D"  37.1 

100.0 
This  sami>le  is  sliglitl>-  heavier  than  the  average  oil  of  tiie  Sumniei'land  district. 


CALIFORNIA    OIL-REFINING    INDUSTRY.  195 

A  1432.     Sunset,  Kern  County. 

Well.     CJraviiy.  14.1°  Bv. 

liravitv.  Per  Cent. 

Stoveoil- :«°  Be.  12.7 

Oas  oil  - 12S  20.1 

Lubricant 22  5.7 

Lubricant 20  12.7 

I,ubricant l(3.«j  16.2 

Aspbalt Grade  "C"  29.3 

Losses               -3.3 

100.0 
This  saiii|ili',  wliicli   about  represents  average  Sunset  oil.  was  distilled  with  care  to 
avoid  decomposition.     Compare  this  analysis  with  that  of   sanijile  below,  whicii    was 
crackeil  as  comjiletely  as  is  possible  in  simple  distillation. 

A  478.     Sunset,  Kern  County. 

Well.     Gravity,  14.0°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  <"ein.  Per  lent 

Distillate .=>6°  Be.  ....  4.(5 

Distillate 44  ....  17.5 

Distillate 33  20.4 

Distillate 32  ....  14.0 

Distillate 30  49.6                    

Distillate . 25.5  -...  13.3 

Residue 19.5  ....  15.0 

Asphalt Grade  "A'  19.0  19.0 

Gasloss .---  11.0 

Total  losses 16.6 

100.0  100.0 

The  products  of  a  distillation  of  this  character  are.  in  the  higher  gravities,  unsuited 
for  the  uses  to  which  corresponding  distillates  from  the  crude  oil  would  be  put,  on 
account  of  their  instability.  The  .56°  distillate  above  is  almost  entirely,  and  the  44° 
ilistillate  very  largely,  soluble  in  ordinary  sulphuric  acid. 

A  1454.     Sunset,  Kern  County. 

Well.     Gravity,  9.9°  Be. 

Gravitv.  Per  Cent. 

Stoveoil : 33°  Be.  2.9 

Gas  oil 28  7.3 

Lubricant 21  36.6 

Asphalt Grade  "D"  51.4 

Loss .-  1.8 

1IK).0 

This  oil  is  from  the  shallow  sand  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  tield,  and  i.-.  about 
the  heaviest  oil  x^roduced  in  the  State  from  actual  wells;  that  is,  from  sands  which  are 
covered  from  contact  with  the  air.     Similar  or  heavier  oils  are  often  found  at  seepages. 

A  1413.     McKittrick,  Kern  County. 

Well.     Gravitv.  18.0°  Be. 

(iravity.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Kerosene 4I..5°  Be.  1.4                    

Kerosene 38  4.2                    

Stoveoil 34  2.4                    

Stoveoil 32  ....  14.0 

Gas  oil -. 28  68.0  62.0 

Asphalt Grade  ■•D"  22.5  22.5 

Loss --  1.5  1.5 

100.0  1<X».0 

This  is  an  average  oil  from  the  southern  end  of  this  district. 


196  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

A  1411.     McKittrick,  Kern  County. 

Pipe-line  average.     Gravity,  15.2°  Be. 

Gravity.      Per  Cent.     Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Kerosene. 42.2°  Be.          0.i>             ....  

Kerosene 41.2                 1.5  

Kerosene-.. 40.0                  0.6             

Kerosene.. SO..^                 2.4  

Kerosene 37.6                 0.9  

Stove  oil 33.0                   Lfj               (».(i  ()..'>  3.0 

Fuel  and  lubricant 25.0                 <)4.0             tU.O  64.1  64.0 

Asphalt..!. Grade  "D"     .32.0             32.0  32.0  32.0 

Loss 1.0               1.0  1.0  1.0 

100.0           100.0  100.0  100.0 

This  is  an  average  sample  from  the  north  center  of  the  field,  with  the  lighter  portion 

separated  and  cut  in  different  ways.     It  gives  an  idea  of  the  variation  in  the  yield  of 
kerosene  at  different  gravities. 


A  1441.     Kern  River,  Kern  County. 

Tank  average.     Gravity,  15.2°  Be. 

Gravity.  Per  Cent. 

Kerosene 52.0°  Be.  0.5 

.Stove  oil 33.5  1.5 

Gas  oil ■ 28.0  12.0 

Lubricant 23.0  10.7 

Lubricant 17.7  25.4 

Lubricant 14.8  9.6 

Asphalt Grade  "E"  38.7 

Loss __.  1.6 


100.0 


The  sample  above  is  an  average  sample  of  oil  from  this  field,  and  was  run  in  the 
manner  usual  when  making  asphalt  and  distillate,  the  distillate  being  fractionated 
from  the  crude  still. 


A  1442.     Kern  River,  Kern  County. 

Tank  average.     Gravity,  15.2°  Be. 

Flash. 

Gravity.  Visecsitv.        Point. 

Distillate •. 39.6°  Be. 

Stoveoil 32.8 

Gas  oil 28.0 

Lubricant 24.2  2.63               246°  F. 

Lubricant 22.5  3.10               276 

Lubricant 21.3  5.61               308 

Lubricant 19.7  10.52                320 

Lubricant 18.4  19.60               337 

Lubricant 17.5  il.m              3:^ 

Lubricant 14.6  1.50.00 

Asphalt GvadC'E" 

Losses ; - 


Surnin 
Point. 

g. 

Per  Cent 
2.6 
3.4 

6.7 

281° 

F. 

5.9 

316 

.3.3 

342 

2.0 

364 

5.1 

398 

5.3 

414 

4.6 



19.2 

... 

38.7 
3.2 

100.0 


This  sample  is  identical  with  tiie  one  above,  but  was  run  with  special  care  to  avoid 
decomposition,  and  the  distillate  then  refractionated.  The  lubricants  above  are  distil- 
lates, with  the  exception  of  the  last.  The  gravity  of  the  liulk  distillate,  before  rerunning, 
was  20.5°  Be. 


CALIFORNIA    OIL-KEFINING    INDUSTRY.  197 

A  1487.     Kern  River.  Kern  County. 

Tank  average.    Gravity,  15.5°  Be. 

Visoos-         Flash        Hviinins; 
Gravity,      ity.  Point.         I'oiiit.       Kuii  1.      Ktiii 'J.       Kiiii  :i.     Kun  I.    Ruii.">_ 

Kerosene..-.  42.0°  ....          110°  F.     122°  F.      0.5%         0.5%  0.5%        0.5%  0.5% 

Paraffin  oil..  24.0  2.52          257  28t>  52.0  .... 

Distillate 38.(i         ....  12.H  

Spindle  oil--  22.0  .5.02          298  828  -...  8i).0          _         

Stove  oil 34.1          -. 2().0         

Neutral  oil.-  20.4  11.20          320  372  ....  ....  28.<i 

Gas  oil 31.7          35.7 

Machine  oil.  18.tj  21.48          358  412  ._..  ...-          18.2       

Gasoil 30.2  ....  .... 4(5.3 

Engine  oil...  17.1  58.t>0          408  452  8.8 

Gasoil 32.0         ---.  39.0 

Neutral  oil-.  21.5  ..-.  _ 16.6 

Asphalt Grade"!)"  33.0  33.0  33.0  33.0  3.3.0 

Losses 2.2            1.5  2.2  2.0  2.1 

100.0        100.0        100.0        100.0      100.0 

This  sample  is  very  similar  to  the  one  above,  but  the  lubricants  were  prepared  by 
reducing  the  bulk  distillate,  in  steam  still.  The  comparison  of  gravities,  viscosities, 
and  Hash  points,  between  this  analysis  and  the  preceding,  will  show  plainly  the  much 
greater  suitability  of  this  method  of  working,  particularly  as  the  bulk  distillate  was  run 
without  care  to  avoid  cracking,  had  the  gravity  27.0°,  and  was  therefore  a  much  less 
satisfactory  material  to  work  with. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  print  any  great  number  of  commercial 
analyses  in  this  connection,  because  of  the  considerable  labor  involved 
in  the  preparation  of  each,  and  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  analyses 
on  file  were  made  for  private  parties,  and  are  not  available  for  this  pur- 
pose. But  a  simple  distillation  may,  when  interpreted  with  care,  throw 
a  certain  amount  of  light  on  the  nature  of  a  crude  oil,  and  on  its  prob- 
able value  for  refining  purposes. 

The  figures  in  the  accompanying  table  (No.  25)  were  made  by  the 
following  method:  A  small  sample,  from  100  c.c.  to  250  c.c,  was  dis- 
tilled in  a  glass  flask  with  side  neck,  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  being 
placed  just  below  outlet.  Fractions  were  collected,  (a)  from  commence- 
ment of  distillation  to  temperature  of  150°  C,  {!>)  from  150°  to  270°. 
These  fractions  were  then  calculated  to  gasolines  and  naphtlias,  and  to 
kerosene,  the  gasolines  being  read  together.  The  rules  l)y  which  these 
calculations  are  made  were  deduced  from  results  of  experiment,  and  are 
not  worth  detailing;  it  should  be  noted  that  the  figures  thus  obtained 
are  estimates,  and  do  not  pretend  to  J>e  arrnrate.  The  residue  from  this 
distillation  is  transferred  to  an  iron  retort,  very  low  and  wide,  and 
further  distilled  until  the  asi)halt  attains  the  desired  consistency, 
usually  a  "D"  grade.  By  making  the  retort  of  metal,  and  very  low  in 
proportion  to  its  width,  decomposition  of  the  lul)ricating  oils  is  almost 
entirely  avoided.  The  distillate  from  the  iron  retort  is  placed  in 
another  small  retort,  and  distilled  under  a  vacuum  of  twenty-three 
inches,  up  to  a  temperature  of  270°  C,  the  thcrniomctci'  bulb  being  in 


198  PETROLEUM    IX    OAI.IKOKNIA. 

the  vapor.  The  distillate  from  this  rectification  is  classed  as  "mid- 
dlings," which  would  include  stove,  gas,  and  fuel  distillates.  The 
gravity  stated  for  middlings  is  the  gravity  of  this  distillate,  hut  the 
(|uantity  is  found  by  adding  to  the  percentage  represented  by  this  dis- 
tillate a  calculated  percentage  of  residue  from  the  150°-270°  distillate. 
The  residue  from  the  last  distillation  is  classed  as  lubricating  oil,  and 
the  gravity  stated. 

Where  only  a  small  sample  is  available  or  where  the  amount  of 
labor  to  be  expended  on  the  analysis  is  limited,  this  method  offers  a 
satisfactory  means  of  estimating  the  value  of  an  oil.  The  results 
obtained  in  this  way  do  not,  of  course,  compare  in  accuracy  with  the 
results  of  a  careful  analysis  of  a  large  sample,  as  the  laboratory  analy- 
sis of  a  sample  of  several  gallons  should  l)e  almost  if  not  quite  as 
reliable  as  a  refinery  test. 

A  number  of  the  samples  included  in  Table  25  were  tested  some  time 
since,  and  on  these  the  middlings  and  lubricants  were  not  separated. 
A  number  of  these  tests  were  made  in  the  writer's  laboratory  by  Mr. 
Wayne  Colver,  several  also  by  Mr.  E.  N.  Moor.  In  this  connection,  see  ; 
also  "Analyses  of  California  Petroleum,"  by  ]Mr.  H.  X.  Cooper,  at  end  of 
this  bulletin. 

Methods  of  Reflning. — The  refining  methods  in  vogue  in  California, 
while  following  in  general  along  Avell-settled  lines,  vary  considerably  in 
details.  Different  crude  oils  require  somewhat  different  treatment,  the 
demands  of  the  market  vary  somewhat  at  different  points,  while  indi- 
vidual opinion  differs  widely  as  to  the  most  suitable  treatment  in  any 
given  case.  For  these  reasons,  any  description  of  refining  processc- 
must  be  of  the  most  general  nature,  and  the  following  remarks  are 
intended  merely  to  show,  to  those  entirely  unfamiliar  with  the  subject,  " 
the  outlines  of  the  methods  employed. 

Petroleum  refining,  in  general,  consists  in  a  fractional  distillation  of 
the  crude  oil,  followed  by  the  action  of  chemicals  and  water  on  the 
crude  fractions,  and  generally,  though  not  always,  of  a  second  distilla- 
tion following  the  chemical  treatment. 

The  nature  of  a  fractional  distillation  is  too  well  known  to  need 
elaboration.'  The  essential  principle  is,  that  on  heating  a  mixture  of 
liquids  having  different  boiling  points,  the  most  volatile  will  boil  first, 
then  the  substance  having  the  next  higher  boiling  point,  and  so  on. 
But  the  lowest  boiling  liquid  will  not  distill  over  in  a  pure  state,  but 
will  carry  over  with  it  portions  of  the  heavier  substances,  so  that  the 
separation  is  but  partial,  and  to  effect  complete  separation  the  process 
must  be  many  times  repeated. 

lAny  good  organic  chemistry  will  explain  the  scieiititic  ]>riiiciples  on  which  frac- 
tional distillation  is  based. 


.?.jio  •saxino  aihho^ua?  no  aaeTiAVA  xtawix 


I 


TABLE  26.     PROXIMATE  ANALYSES  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE  OILS. 


Sample. 

Distillation. 

Oalcdlated  Analysis. 

District. 

County. 

1 

S' 

Taken 
from. 

11 

1? 

Below 

150"  to 
270-  C. 

.\bove 
270°  C. 

Asphalt. 

■g 
1 

Total 
GaBoline. 

Kerosene. 

Middlings. 

Lubri- 

Is 

1' 

Asphalt. 

S" 

s 
i 

No. 

5 

•< 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

i 

: 

i 

s 

i 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

i 

1 

?5 

tl 

sl 

2445 
2427 
2466 
2424 
2465 
2438 

Fullerton - 

Fullerton 

FuUerton 

Fullerton. 

Fullerton 

FHillerton 

■Fullerton 

Fullerton.- 

Fullerton 

Orange 

Orange 

Orange 

Orange  

Orange    

Orange 

Orange 

Orange 

Orange 

8 
8 
8 
1 
9 
9 
9 

9 
9 

3S 
3S 
38 
3S 
38 
38 
38 

38 

38 

9W 
9W 
9W 

low 

9W 
9W 
9W 

9W 

9W 

8.  B. 
8.  B. 
S.  B. 
8.  B. 
8.  B. 
S.  B. 
8.  B. 

S.  B. 
S.  B. 

Well.... 
Tank  ._. 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well-... 

Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 

Well.... 
Well...- 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 

Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Pipeline 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 
Well.... 

Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 
Tank  ... 

Well.... 
Well.--- 

16.9° 
20.3 
20.5 
23.3 
32.4 
32.8 
33.0 

33.4 
34.6 
26.8 
26.8 
29.1 
20.4 
21.0 

23.1 
23.2 
15.1 
15.7 
17.2 
42.7 
11.8 

22.6 
23.9 
26.2 
26.6 
26.0 
26.6 
26.8 

27.4 
28.0 
28.1 
15.0 
16.9 
16.3 
17.2 

18.6 

18.8 
■_>1.5 

lM.4 

ll-il 

14.0 
17.3 
13.0 
17.1 
16.0 
15.1 
18.9 

19.0 
12.4 
1.5.7 
16.1 
17.8 
18.7 
21.4 

33.4 
46.0 
24.0 
23.0 
42.7 

1.0 
Tr. 
3.4 

10.6 
21.7 
23.8 
24.8 

22.1 
22.9 
10.5 
12.5 
21.0 
.0 
2.1 

6.2 
4.7 
.0 
.0 
.0 
51.0 
.0 

.0 
7.2 
12.5 
10.0 
10.0 
13.8 
13.0 

19.4 
13.0 
16.6 
.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.0 

6.0 
47.5 
4.0 
28.5 
.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 
4.1 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
0.6 

0.6 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

1.0 

28.0 
52.0 
1.0 
10.7 
31.0 

65.8" 
67.0 
69.1 
69.6 
60.9 

60.9 
62.1 
69.2 
58.8 
58.2 

55.0 

55.0 
67.3 

'ii'i 

41.0 
42.9 
47.6 
31.4 
41.8 
31.2 
31.4 

37.6 
33.4 
33.0 
33.0 
30.0 
45.3 
48.4 

44.7 
46.9 
63.7 
64.1 
60.2 
4.0 
66.6 

25.6° 
"m.7 

■26.5 
27V3' 

"22V6' 

mYs' 

23.0 
'26'.6 
'24V7" 

42.0 
32.1 
25.9 
31.6 
9.0 
16.7 
15.6 

8.0 
12.9 
26.0 
24.0 
22.1 
27.3 
21.4 

20.2 
19.7 
13.3 
25.7 
26.9 
.0 
41.7 

16.4 
26.6 
11.8 
25.3 
16.0 
12.9 
11.1 

18.8 
25.6 
21.1 
32.2 
41.9 
24.2 
27.0 

37.0 
.0 
22.9 
.0 
31.9 
35.2 
17.0 

32.0 
24.0 
36.0 
36.7 
26.9 
28.9 
22.0 

27.6 
34.8 
27.9 
21.7 
20.1 
22.1 
18.2 

Tr. 
.0 
6.6 
21.3 
4.3 

D 
D 
E 
D 
D 
D 
D 

D 
D 
D 
P 
D 
D 
D 

D 
E 
B 
D 
D 

"ii: 

D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
C 
D 

D 
D 
D 

E 
D 
D 

E 

D 

"d" 
c' 

E 
B 

D 
C 
D 
D 
D 
D 
C 

E 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
E 

b" 

E 
(') 

2.0 
2.0 
4.3 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 
0.6 

1.5 
2.9 
2.6 
1.6 
2.0 
4.0 
4.2 

2.6 
4.7 
3.0 
3.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 

1.4 
1.7 
.0 

3!o 
2.0 
3.6 

0.6 
0.9 
3.0 
3.8 
2.0 
6.0 
2.0 

2.0 
3.5 
2.4 
1.6 
2.3 
3.7 
3.3 

3.0 
2.0 
2.8 
3.4 
3.1 
2.3 
1.9 

1.3 
.0 
1.8 
1.8 
3.0 
0.6 
1.8 

1.0 
3.0 
1.5 
1.1 
1.4 

1.2 
1.8 
4.4 
12.3 

24.3 
26.0 
27.6 

24.6 
26.7 
13.3 
16.4 
22.9 
0.7 
2.8 

6.0 
6.9 
.0 
.0 
0.6 
62.3 
.0 

1.6 
8.0 
13.3 
12.4 
11.4 
16.4 
14.3 

21.2 

15.0 

18.3 

.0 

i!o 

1.0 

6.5 
60.3 
6.0 
32.5 
.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 
6.1 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
0.7 

6.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

1.8 

20.0 
64.7 
1.3 
11.6 
34.8 

'66° 
64 
66 
68 
69 
60 

60 
61 
68 
68 
68 

'54' 

55 
66 

"49' 

54 
64 
53 
67 
65 
59 
63 

68 
60 

64 

'55" 

54 
61 
55 
57 

'52' 
48 

'55' 

48 
60 

'54" 
60 

7.7 

17.9 
12.3 
17.8 
20.6 
20.8 
24.8 

23.1 
25.1 
25.2 
24.7 
17.0 
14.0 
14.4 

16.4 
16.6 
4.0 
S.O 
12.1 
26.8 
.0 

19.6 
16.0 
15.3 
19.2 
17.6 
24.3 
17.2 

18.3 
18.5 
16.5 

3.0 
16.8 
11.0 

9.0 

9.8 
29.7 
18.7 
38.0 
.0 
.0 
2.6 

2.0 
9.3 
.0 
2.0 
2.0 
4.0 
12.1 

8.0 
.0 
2.0 
2.0 
7.3 
.3.0 
16.0 

12.0 
24.3 
18.2 
18.6 
30.1 

40° 
42 
41 
42 
42 
42 
42 

42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
41 
41 

41 
41 
40 
40 
40 
40 

41 
41 
41 
42 
41 
42 
41 

42 
42 
42 
40 
41 
40 
40 

40 
44 
42 
44 

'46' 

40 
42 

"46" 
40 
40 
40 

42 

'40' 
40 
40 
40 
41 

42 
42 
40 
41 
42 

47.1 
46.2 

"3'7'.'3' 

'35.9" 
31.4 

42.8 

"33".'o" 

'36.'o' 
54.0 

64.8 

'6'8".'3 

62.2 
48.8 

'52".'l' 
44.4 
53.9 

41.2 
40.0 
4L1 

'se.'o' 

58.8 
44.7 

'ot.'o' 
'U's 

m'i 

Ha 

42.0 
32.1 
26.9 
31.6 
9.0 
16.7 
16.6 

8.0 
12.9 
26.0 
24.0 
22.1 
27.3 
21.4 

20.2 
19.7 
13.3 
25.7 
25.9 
.0 
41.7 

15.4 
26.6 
U.8 
26.3 
16.0 
12.9 
11.1 

18.8 
26.6 
21.1 
32.2 
41.9 
24.2 
27.0 

37.0 
.0 
22.9 
.0 
31.9 
36.2 
16.2 

32.0 
24.0 
,36.0 
36.7 
26.9 
28.9 
22.6 

27.6 
34.8 
27.9 
21.7 
20.1 
22.1 
18.2 

Tr. 
.0 
6.6 
21.3 
4.3 

46.9 
36.1 
29.2 
36.3 
10.7 
20.5 
18.1 

9.6 
16.0 
30.7 
28.5 
26.3 
30.8 
24.2 

23.2 
22.6 
13.8 
28.1 
28.6 

"44'."4' 

18.1 
29.6 
13.7 
29.5 
18.8 
15.2 
13.1 

22.1 
29.1 
25.1 
36.0 
46.2 
26.6 
29.6 

41.3 
.0 
26.0 
.0 
35.0 
38.1 
17.6 

35.6 

'3'8'.'5' 
40.6 
.29.2 
31.6 
25.3 

30.9 
37.2 
30.5 
23.8 

'24.'7' 
20.6 

".0" 
7.9 
24.6 
5.3 

154.3 
117.9 
95.1 
116.2 
82.3 
61.7 
67.3 

29.0 
49.0 
95.7 
88.2 
81.4 
100.2 
78.4 

74.3 
72.3 
46.7 
93.9 
94.9 

iii'i 

66.4 
98.6 
43.2 
92.9 
69.0 
47.4 
40.8 

69.0 
92.1 
77.7 
117.3 
154.0 
88.9 
99.0 

135.8 

"m'.'2" 

'l'2'2'."3" 
129.7 
69.5 

117.6 

'mi" 

123.9 
98.8 

106.1 
82.9 

101.4 
119.5 
102.3 
79.8 

"8'i."2" 
66.7 

"'24'.'2' 
78.4 
16.0 

2.0 
2.0 
4.3 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 
0.6 

1.6 
2.9 
2.6 
1.5 
2.0 
4.0 
4.2 

2.6 
4.7 
3.0 
3.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 

1.4 
1.7 
.0 
2.7 
3.0 
2.0 
3.6 

0.5 
0.9 
3.0 
3.8 
2.0 
6.0 
2.0 

2.0 
3.5 
2.4 
1.5 
2.3 
3.7 
3.3 

3.0 
2.0 
2.8 
3.4 
3.1 
2.3 
1.0 

1.3 
.0 
1.8 
1.8 
3.0 
0.6 
1.8 

1.0 
3.0 
1.5 
1.1 
1.4 

23.0 
18.8 
25.6 
25.8 
27.7 
27.6 

30.8 
27.9 
28.0 
29.0 
24.0 
23.4 
23.9 

27.3 
24.0 
20.0 
17.2 
21.9 
43.0 
.0 

41.2 
39.3 
39.9 
41.5 
40.7 
42.8 

41.3 
43.0 
43.6 
42.4 
41.4 
38.1 
38.2 

38.4 
39.3 
30.2 
30.2 
36.9 
38.0 

18.4 

34.0° 

34.7 

20.9° 

15.4 

33.7 

29.0 

21.0 

2434 

2467 

12.1 

32.7 

21.3 

23.0 

16.4 

32.5 

18.0 

22.3 

2450 
2451 

2448 
2470 

Whittier 

Whittier.. 

Whittier 

Whittier 

Los  Angeles 

Los  Angeles 

Newhal! 

Newhall 

Santa  Paula 

Los  Angeles.. 
Los  Angeles .. 

Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles. - 

26 
26 

26 
26 

28 
2S 

2S 
28 

11 W 
UW 

11 W 
11  W 

S.  B. 
8.  B. 

8.  B. 
8.  B. 

'a.'i 

20'.6 
37.2 

'31.8 

M.i" 
31.8 

'34'."! 

'3'3'.'6' 
42.6 

I's.'o' 

18.7 

2462 
1419 
2494 

Los  Angeles .. 
Los  Angeles  .. 
Ventura 

13 
4 
U 

3N 
3N 
4N 

lew 
16  w 
22  W 

S.  B. 
S.  B. 
8.  B. 

23.8 
19.9 
24.3 

M.'l 

36.7 

.0 

32.3 

'l'7'.'5' 

White  oil. 

54.11    -''■  :    -.^  '1      -  '1  

63.7      ■     ■       "  '.      -■  J    23.0 
58..-.        i  ■'     1      .       •  '1    29.8 

Santa  Paula 

24.5 
21.4 

36.1 
19.0 

Green  oil. 

Santa  Paula 

Ventura 

18  W 

8.  B. 

59.4 
.54.0 

69.2 
61.6 
63.7 

65.0 
62.3 
56.6 
58.0 

48.6 
51.8 

mVo' 

60.7 

32.4 
26.6 

20.1 
20.6 
23.6 
10.0 
24.0 
20.0 
18.0 

19.5 
33.0 
20.7 
42.0 
.0 
.0 
13.0 

12.0 
12.3 
.0 
5.7 
11.0 
11.4 
22.0 

22.0 
.0 
5.8 
6.5 
18.3 
16.0 
26.0 

60.0 
27.0 
83.0 
31.0 
37.6 

40  »  1  MS  ; 

'ii'i 

21.3 

2{.6 
27.5 
28.0 
21.6 
23.1 
21.2 

21.0 
24.2 
22.7 

'is'.s' 

26.6 

19.3 
22.2 

'24.5 
26.0 

23.7" 

22.0 
28.6 
23.3 
23.0 
29.6 

Santa  Paula 

Santa  Paula 

Bardsdale 

39.0 

40.1 
43.4 
39.8 
35.4 
39.6 
37.0 
36.3 

36.0 
46.0 
43.1 
46.6 

'30.8 

35.9 
40.8 

M.b" 
33.4 
35.4 
36.6 

38.7 

32V9' 
33.5 
34.8 
33.3 
37.6 

32.6 
43.7 
36.9 
38.4 
42.0 

46.0 

36.2 
40.0 
35.7 
54.0 
31.1 
60.0 
62.0 

35.5 
16.0 
60.0 
28.0 
65.8 
61.1 
67.6 

53.0 
67.6 
61.2 
54.2 
69.0 
67.4 
63.0 

48.6 
65.2 
64.5 
70.0 
68.6 
62.4 
64.0 

21.0 
18.0 
67.9 
36.9 
26.7 

Ventura 

Ventura 

17 
12 

4N 
BN 

21 W 
20  W 

8.  B. 
8.  B. 

2498 

Summerland 

Santa  Maria 

Sargents 

Sargents 

Sargents 

HaRMoon  Bay. 
Bolinas  Bay.... 

Santa  Barbara 
Santa  Barbara 

28.6 

33.4 

40.6 

18.0 

2412 

23.0 

31.0 

38.0 

17.7 

1465 

3.2 
16.7 
14.0 
16.7 
21.1 
33.1 

26.0 
19.4 
18.7 

'36.8' 

'Us 

32.3 
32.8 

32.6 

's'i.'e" 

12.8 
34.3 
14.0 
50.1 
40.0 
45.9 

38.0 
40.2 
42.5 

'23'."4' 

'i8.'2' 
18.6 
16.8 

17.0 

I'v'.'o' 

affln. 

W.-M 

Kern  River 

Kern  River 

Kern  River 

8 
3 
5 

34 
34 
22 
17 
13 
12 
20 

29  8 
298 
298 

12  N 
12  N 
32  N 
32  N 

30  8 
308 
30  8 

28  E 
28  E 
28  E 

24W 
24W 
23  E 
23  E 

2468 

Kern 

M.Ii.    U.ll    . 

3402 

Kern 

9499 

Kern... 

8.  B. 
S.  B. 
M.D. 

M.D. 

Pipeline 
Pipeline 
Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Pipeline 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 

Well.... 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Pipeline 
Well.... 
Well.... 
Tank  ... 

Tank  ... 
Well.... 
Well.... 

^elr^" 

Kern.. 

1409 

McKittrick.-... 
McKittrick 

McKittrick 

McKittrick 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga.. 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Alcalde 

Kern 

32.6 

35.4 

?444 

Kern 

21  E  IM.D. 

22  E   M.D. 

1 

30.9 

14.4 
12.8 

"ss.'s' 

31.8 

43.7 
40.7 

1490 

a403 

?44n 

Fresno... 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno 

Fresno.- 

Fresno 

14 
24 
6 
6 
31 
28 

20 
20 
29 

20  8 
20  8 
20  8 
208 
19  S 
19  8 

19  8 
19  8 
208 

14  E  i  M.D. 

14  E  !  M.D. 

15  E  I  M.D. 
15  E   M.D. 
1.5  E   M.D. 

1402 
1497 
2452 

22.5 
34.4 

62.0 
35.2 

3404 

1407 
1492 

1.5  E 

15  E 

16  E 
13  E 

M.D. 

M.D, 
M.D. 
M.D. 

27.7 

38.0 
18.0 
31.9 
15.7 
11.6 

31.3 

33.0 
28.6 

'84'.'3' 

36.5 

29.0 
.0 
40.5 
16.8 
17.8 

19.7 
'26.'6' 

1408 

Vallecitos. 

Bitterwater 

2473 

San  Benito 

32 

18  8 

10  EjM.D. 

Green  oil. 

» The  residue  fro 

m  this  sample 

s  n 

3t  as 

phalt, 

thoug 

ii  contain 

ing  t 

lat  a 

ubsta 

nee. 

CALIFORNIA    OIL-UEFIXIXC;    IXDrSTHY.  199 

As  crude  jx'troleum  is  a  niixturt'  of  an  in<U'tinit(%  and  very  large, 
number  of  substances  haviny  different  l)oiling  points,  and  as  each  of 
tliese  liquids,  as  it  distills,  carries  over  with  it  more  or  less  of  the  other 
elements,  the  boiling  point  of  the  mixture  will  not  rise  by  jumps,  but 
will  increase  steadily  as  distillation  })rogresses,  the  change  from  one 
sul)stance  to  the  next  being  generally  (|uite  imi)ei-cei)tible.  And  as  it 
is  a  general  rule  that  the  higher  the  boiling  })oint  of  a  sul)stance  the 
lower  the  gravity  (when  considering  any  one  jx'troleum),  the  gravity 
of  the  distillate'  will  lower  gradually  and  eveidy  as  the  distillation  j)ro- 
gresses.  P^or  these  reasons,  the  commercial  fractions  made  from  crude 
petroleum  are  not  definite  substances,  Init  are  themselves  very  compli- 
cated mixtures,  and  the  dividing  line  l)etween  any  two  substances  is 
not  a  natural  and  inevitaldi',  but  an  arbitrary  one,  fixed  by  experience 
and  by  the  qualities  desired  for  the  i)roducts.  In  general,  the  change 
from  one  cut  to  another  is  made  when  the  distillate  flowdng  from  the 
condenser  has  reached  a  certain  set  gravity  reading. 

Stills. — The  crude  oil  is  pumped  from  the  storage  tanks,  usually  by 
means  of  "low-service"  duplex  piston  pumps,  into  the  stills.  These 
are  sheet  steel  cylinders,  constructed  of  steel  of  low  tensile  strength, 
which  withstands  the  action  of  heat  better  than  the  harder  grades. 
The  longitudinal  seams  of  these  shells  are  double  riveted,  the  round- 
aliout  seams  single  riveted,  the  rivets  being  pitched  a  little  wider  than 
is  customary  in  boiler  work.  Where  possible  the  bottom  of  the  still  is 
constructed  of  one  sheet,  thus  avoiding  rivet  heads  over  the  fire. 

Oil  stills  are  jdain  cylinders,  exactly  resembling,  to  use  a  homely 
parallel,  an  empty  l)aking-i)owder  can  laid  on  its  side.  There  are  no 
Hues  or  tubes,  and  in  general  no  bracing,  but  the  shell  is  provided  with 
a  small  dome,  a  manhole  in  the  top,  another  in  one  head,  a  "test  col- 
unm  "  on  one  head,  connected  into  the  body  of  still  at  top  and  bottom, 
and  equipped  with  a  row  of  pet-cocks,  the  latter  serving  as  gauges  to 
determine  the  level  of  the  liquid  in  the  still.  Flanges  are  also  provided 
for  inlet,  outlet,  vapor,  and  steam  pipes. 

The  stills  are  set  in  brickwork,  in  various  ways.  In  one  form  of  set- 
ting, the  still  is  supported  on  lugs  resting  on  the  side  walls,  the  outer 
face  of  brickAvork  at  front  and  rear  being  carried  uj)  Hush  with  the 
heads.  This  setting  is  economical  of  brickwork,  and  2:)rotects  the  end 
seams  from  the  fire,  but  considerably  reduces  the  heating  surface  of  the 
shell,  as  a  length  equal  to  the  combined  thickness  of  front  and  rear 
walls  is  covered.  In  another  form  of  setting,  eyes  are  riveted  to  top  of 
still,  hooks  engaging  these  eyes  swing  from  "1"  beams,  the  latter  rest- 
ing on  brickwork  or  metal  columns  outside  of  setting,  or  on  colunms 
carried  up  from  side  walls.  The  front  and  rear  walls  are  carried  uj) 
clear  of  the  shell,  to  alxnit  tlie   c-enti'r   line.     Tliis  form  of  settino-   has 


9HT    .8S  HJRA-i 


CALIFOliNIA    OIL-KEFIXIN(i    INDISTHY.  199 

As  crude  jx'troleum  is  a  mixture  of  an  indelinite,  and  very  large, 
number  of  Hubstanees  having  different  l)oilin<j;  points,  and  as  each  of 
these  liquids,  as  it  distills,  carries  over  with  it  more  or  less  of  the  other 
elements,  the  boiling  point  of  the  mixture  will  not  rise  by  jumps,  but 
will  increase  steadily  as  distillation  progresses,  the  change  from  one 
sul)stance  to  the  next  being  generally  (juite  imi)erce])tible.  And  as  it 
is  a  general  rule  that  the  higher  the  boiling  })oint  of  a  sul)stance  the 
lower  the  gravity  (when  considering  any  one  ]K'troleum),  the  gravity 
of  the  distillate  will  lower  gradually  and  evenly  as  the  distillation  pro- 
gresses. For  these  reasons,  the  connnercial  fractions  made  from  ci-ude 
petroleum  are  not  definite  substances,  but  are  thcnnselves  very  compli- 
cated mixtures,  and  the  dividing  line  l)etween  any  two  substances  is 
not  a  natural  and  inevitalile,  but  an  arbitrary  one,  fixed  by  exi^erience 
and  by  the  qualities  desired  for  the  jiroducts.  In  general,  the  change 
from  one  cut  to  another  is  made  when  the  distillate  flowing  from  the 
condenser  has  reached  a  certain  set  gravity  reading. 

Stills. — The  crude  oil  is  pumped  from  the  storage  tanks,  usuallv  by 
means  of  "low-service"  duplex  piston  pumps,  into  the  stills.  These 
are  sheet  steel  cylinders,  constructed  of  steel  of  low  tensile  strength, 
which  withstands  the  action  of  heat  better  than  the  harder  grades. 
The  longitudinal  seams  of  these  shells  are  double  riveted,  the  round- 
about seams  single  riveted,  the  rivets  being  pitched  a  little  wider  than 
is  customary  in  boiler  work.  Where  possible  the  bottom  of  the  still  is 
constructed  of  one  sheet,  thus  avoiding  rivet  heads  over  the  fire. 

Oil  stills  are  plain  cylinders,  exactly  resend^ling,  to  use  a  homely 
parallel,  an  empty  ])aking-i)owder  can  laid  on  its  side.  There  are  no 
flues  or  tubes,  and  in  general  no  In-acing,  but  the  shell  is  provided  with 
a  small  dome,  a  manhole  in  the  top,  another  in  one  head,  a  "test  col- 
unm  "  on  one  head,  connected  into  the  body  of  still  at  top  and  bottom, 
and  equip})ed  with  a  row  of  pet-cocks,  the  latter  serving  as  gauges  to 
determine  the  level  of  the  liquid  in  the  still.  Flanges  are  also  provided 
for  inlet,  outlet,  vapor,  and  steam  i)ipes. 

The  stills  are  set  in  brickwork,  in  various  ways.  In  one  form  of  set- 
ting, the  still  is  supported  on  lugs  resting  on  the  side  walls,  the  outer 
face  of  brickwork  at  front  and  rear  being  carried  up  flush  with  the 
heads.  This  setting  is  economical  of  brickwork,  and  protects  the  end 
seams  from  the  fire,  but  considerably  reduces  the  heating  surface  of  the 
shell,  as  a  length  equal  to  the  combined  thickness  of  front  and  rear 
walls  is  covered.  In  another  form  of  setting,  eyes  are  riveted  to  top  of 
still,  hooks  engaging  these  eyes  swing  from  "I"  beams,  the  latter  rest- 
ing on  brickwork  or  metal  colunms  outside  of  setting,  or  on  columns 
carried  up  from  side  walls.  The  front  and  rear  walls  are  carried  uj) 
clear  of  the  shell,  to  about  tlic  center  line.     This  form  of  setting;   has 


200  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

the  great  advantage  that  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  shell  do  not 
rupture  the  setting,  the  still  swinging  quite  free,  and  that  the  entire 
lower  surface  of  the  shell  is  availa))le  heating  surface;  but  the  cost  is 
considerable,  and  the  end  seams  are  exposed  to  the  fire.  Other  forms 
of  setting  are  modifications  or  combinations  of  these  two  types.  What- 
ever form  of  setting  is  used,  all  exposed  surfaces  are  carefully  covered 
over  with  some  non-conductor  of  heat,  to  avoid  loss  through  radiation, 
and  decomposition  of  the  distillate.  The  firebox  is  without  grates,  of 
simple  construction,  oil  burners  being  always  used,  and  the  fire  gases 
pass  down  the  length  of  the  still  and  directly  into  a  flue  at  the  rear  end. 

Condensers. — The  vapors  from  the  boiling  oil  pass  through  a  pipe, 
called  the  "  vapor  pipe,"  into  the  condenser.  Condensers  are  of  various 
forms,  but  almost  always  constructed  of  wrought  pipe.  On  small  stills 
a  simple  coil,  decreasing  in  size  downward,  will  answer;  for  larger 
stills,  parallel  coils,  run  into  a  header  at  inlet  and  outlet  ends,  or  banks 
of  pipes  carried  into  headers  on  each  bank,  are  more  commonly  used, 
the  aim  of  these  arrangements  being  to  increase  the  discharge  area  of 
the  condenser  and  thus  diminish  the  back  pressure  on  the  still.  It  is 
evident  that  if  thirty  feet  of  pipe,  for  instance,  is  connected  up  in  three 
lengths  of  ten  feet  each,  from  one  vapor  pipe,  the  discharge  area  will 
be  three  times  what  it  would  be  if  the  thirty  feet  were  coupled  onto  the 
vapor  pipe  in  a  continuous  length,  while  the  condensing  surface  will 
remain  the  same.  Whatever  the  form  of  the  condensing  coils,  they  are 
immersed  in  a  water  box,  and  kept  covered  with  a  changing  supply  of 
cold  water,  by  which  the  vapors  are  cooled  and  reduced  to  a  liquid 
form. 

From  the  condensers,  the  distillates,  now  reduced  to  a  liquid,  pass 
into  a  small  building  known  as  "  tail-house"  or  "  receiving-house." 
Here  the  pipes  are  connected  into  iron  boxes,  provided  with  an  outlet 
below  for  the  stream  of  distillate,  and  above  for  the  gas  alwa)^s  accom- 
panying the  oil.  The  stream  flowing  through  this  box  may  be  seen 
through  small  glass  windows,  and  the  size  and  color  of  the  stream  thus 
examined  without  exposing  it  to  the  air.  From  the  sight-boxes  the 
distillate  is  passed  through  a  series  of  valves,  by  which  it  may  be 
directed  to  the  proper  tank.  The  distillate  finally  reaches  its  place  in 
the  cut-tank,  where  it  is  stored  for  further  treatment. 

Regulation  of  Distillation. — The  distillation  is  regulated  by  the  gravity 
of  the  (listillale  usually,  though  sometimes  ])y  the  temperature  of  the 
still.  Practically  all  tlie  oils  of  the  Pacific  Coast  leave  a  residue  of 
asphalt,  and  the  distillation  is  finished  when  this  asphalt,  which 
remains  behind  in  the  still,  reaches  the  proper  hardness.  It  is  tested 
from  time  to  time  by  withdrawing  small  (quantities  through  a  test-cock. 


CAIJFORXIA    OII.-HKKINIXG    INDUSTRY.  201 

The  distillation  being  finished,  the  tire  is  shut  off,  and  the  still  and 
contents  allowed  to  cool  a  short  time,  and  the  asphalt  then  drawn  into 
the  coolers. 

Coolers. — These  are  ilosed  iron  or  steel  tanks  or  boxes,  of  any 
desired  shape,  either  cylindrical  or  rectangular.  The  ol)ject  of  the 
cooler  is  to  enable  the  still  to  be  emptied  while  the  asphalt  is  still  very 
hot.  Asphalt  at  a  high  temperature  can  not  be  drawn  into  an  open 
tank,  because  of  the  suffocating  va{)ors  and  the  danger  of  tire,  but  by 
having  the  coolers  closed  except  for  a  small  vent,  the  asphalt  may  be 
drawn  from  the  still  at  any  heat  desired.  It  remains  in  the  coolers 
until  sufficiently  reduced  in  tcm})crature  to  ena1)le  it  to  be  drawn  into 
liarrels. 

Steam  is  usually  passed  into  the  still  during  the  progress  of  distilla- 
tion, the  object  being  to  reduce  the  heat  necessary  and  to  prevent 
decomposition  of  the  distillate.  The  heavier  vapors  of  petroleum  are 
very  dense,  and  correspondingly  heavy,  and  do  not  readily  ascend 
through  the  vapor  pipe,  but  have  a  tendency  to  lie  in  the  still  and  to 
decompose  from  contact  with  the  heated  sides  of  the  shell.  The  vapor 
of  water  is  ver}''  light,  and  by  injecting  dry  steam  into  the  still,  the  oil 
vapors  are  carried  out  of  the  still  mechanically,  and  the  boiling  tem- 
perature considerably  lowered.  Another  function  of  the  steam  is  to 
promote  circulation  of  the  oil,  the  steam  pipes  being  laid  along  the 
bottom,  with  the  perforations  pointed  in  such  direction  as  to  cause  the 
oil  to  circulate  up  the  sides  and  down  in  the  center,  or  otherwise  as 
desired.  This  scours  the  bottom  sheets,  and  prevents  the  oil  from 
coking  fast  to  the  shell.  The  steam  is  sometimes  superheated  by  a  coil 
in  the  firebox,  but  more  often  by  passing  it  through  a  blank  coil  within 
the  still  itself.  By  the  latter  method  the  steam  is  always  heated  to 
about  the  temperature  of  the  oil,  and  burning  of  oil  by  overheating  of 
steam  prevented.  Steam  is  usually  started  as  soon  as  the  water  accom- 
panying the  oil  has  distilled  off,  and  kept  on  to  the  end  of  the  run,  it 
being  considered  desirable  to  reduce  cracking  of  the  lighter  distillates 
as  far  as  possible.  California  oils  are,  as  a  rule,  rather  tender,  and 
have  to  be  distilled  with  care.  For  reasons  mentioned  in  the  following 
chapter,  they  are  never  cracked  intentionally,  to  increase  yield  of 
kerosene. 

Treatment. — From  the  cut  tanks,  such  oils  as  require  chemical  treat- 
ment are  pumped  to  the  agitators.  These  are  upright  cylinders,  with 
conical  bottoms,  generally  -thougli  not  always  lined  with  sheet  lead,  and 
provided  with  air  blast  and  with  outlets  for  the  spent  chemicals  and 
the  treated  oils.  The  chemicals  generally  used  are  the  strongest  sul- 
phuric acid,    and  caustic  soda  or  other   alkalies.     The    object    of    the 


202  I'KTKOI.Kr.M     IN    CALIFOKNIA. 

sul})linrie  acid  is  to  oxidize  the  unstable  elements  in  the  oil  and  to  take 
them  into  solution.  Tlic  acid  is  tlioronghly  mixed  with  the  oil  by 
means  of  a  l)last  of  air,  and  then  allowed  to  settle,  and  drawn  off. 
The  spent  acid  is  sometimes  made  use  of,  but  generally  allowed  to  run 
to  waste.  After  the  acid,  which  is  noAV  thick  and  black,  has  completely 
settled,  the  oil  is  usually  washed  with  water,  and  then  with  an  alkaline 
solution,  the  object  of  the  latter  being  to  dissolve  and  carry  away 
certain  aci<I  in)purities  not  destroyed  by  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  to 
neutralize  any  traces  of  the  latter  remaining  in  the  oil.  After  the 
alkali  has  settled  and  been  withdrawn,  the  oil  is  repeatedly  washed 
with  water,  until  all  traces  of  alkali  are  eliminated,  then  drawn  off.  and 
allowed  to  settle  until  perfectly  clear. 

Chemical  treatment,  while  simple  in  outline,  is  very  complicated,  and 
often  very  haphazard,  in  practice,  and  varies  immensely  with  different 
products,  as  well  as  with  different  .qualities  of  crude  oil.  In  general, 
however,  no  other  chemicals  than  those  mentioned  are  used,  and  these 
in  small  quantity,  from  a  fraction  of  a  per  cent  up  to  two  or  three  per 
cent,  by  bulk,  of  acid,  and  a  very  small  percentage  of  highly  dilute 
alkali.  California  oils  are  not,  as  a  rule,  very  refractory  to  treatment, 
but  require  careful  manipulation. 

Redistillation. — Many  products  demand  a  second  distillation  after  the 
treatment.  Sometimes  the  entire  body  of  the  oil  is  redistilled,  with  the 
object  of  a  closer  fractionation;  more  often  the  oil  is  merely  heated, 
and  the  lighter  elements  l)lown  off  by  means  of  steam,  this  process 
being  known  as  "reduction,"  and  the  still  as  a  " steam  still."  Some- 
times the  oil  thus  reduced  is  again  treated,  more  often  it  is  ready  for 
the  market  directly  from  the  still. 

Manipulation  of  Products.— The  Gasolines  are  generally  run  into  a 
stock,  cut  from  the  conmiencement  of  distillation  down  to  a  point  vary- 
ing Avith  tlie  crude,  and  with  the  grade  of  kerosene  desired.  The  cut 
will  usually  V)e  made  when  the  gravity  at  tail-box  is  somewhere  about 
52*'.  This  stock,  the  gravity  of  which  will  vary  enormously,  is  given  a 
light  treatment  with  acid  and  soda,  cleared,  and  redistilled  by  means 
of  indirect  steam.  The  distillates  from  the  gasoline  still  will  usually 
be  marketaV)le  witliout  further  treatment,  although  if  the  crude  is  very 
bad  the  engine  distillate,  which  comes  over  last,  may  require  a  very 
liglit  treatment  to  Itring  up  its  color.  There  should  be  practically  no 
residue  from  tliis  distillation. 

The  Kerosene  is  cut  from  the  end  of  gasoline  stock,  that  is,  about  52°. 
down  to  39°,  88°,  37°,  or  even  36°,  according  to  the  crude,  and  to  the 
grade  of  kerosene  desired.  The  raw  cut  is  carefully  treated  and  cleared, 
and  is  then  i)assed  back  to  the  kerosene  still.  Some  refineries  redistill 
the  kerosene,  leaving  a  slight   residue  which   is  })ractically   waste,  and 


CALTFOKNIA    OIL-IJEFININT.    INDrSTIiV.  208 

taking-  off  a  small  initial  cut  which  goes  to  engine  distillate;  others 
prefer  to  simply  reduce  the  kerosene  hy  distilling  off  a  small  (pnintity 
with  a  large  supply  of  steam,  the  kerosene  remaining  as  a  residue.  In 
either  case,  the  kerosene  will  riMpiire  a  second  treatment  with  acid  to 
hring  its  color  up  to  standard. 

Stove  Oil  is  generally  a  cut  from  the  ci'ude  still,  following  the  kero- 
sene. If  a  red  oil  is  to  he  made,  a  treatment  with  alkali  alone  (a  strong 
solution)  will  answer;  hut  if  pale  grades  are  to  he  made,  treatment 
with  acid  and  alkali  is  necessary.  If  the  crude  still  is  properly  regu- 
lated, a  satisfactory  tiash  i)oint  will  he  h:nl  without  further  precautions. 

Middlings. — Between  the  stove  oil  and  the  luhricants  there  is  almost 
always  a  portion  of  the  distillate  which  can  not  l)e  made  of  use  except 
as  fuel,  unless  a  market  for  gas  oil  is  at  hand.  This  distillate  runs  25° 
to  27°  gravity,  and  yields  practically  nothing  of  value  to  redistillation, 
and  is  therefore  sold  or  used  in  the  crude  state. 

Lubricating  Oils  are  made  from  the  last  distillates,  and  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways.  For  the  lighter  neutrals,  a  distillate  from  the  crude 
still  is  sometimes  treated,  and  sold  without  further  distillation  or 
reduction.  For  heavier  oils,  either  a  portion  or  the  entire  bulk  of  the 
heavy  distillate  is  reduced  in  a  steam  still  to  the  gravity  or  viscosity 
desired.  This  distillate  may  or  may  not  l)e  treated  before  reduction, 
but  is  always  treated  either  l)efore  or  after  passing  through  the  still, 
sometimes,  where  high  grade  is  desired,  both  before  and  after.  The 
lubricants  from  California  crude  will  seldom  stand  actual  redistillation, 
decomposing  badly  even  where  the  greatest  care  is  used.  The  distil- 
lates from  the  lul)ricating  steam  still  are  light  i)roducts  of  decompo- 
sition of  the  heavier  oils,  and  of  very  little  value.  As  our  local  oils 
are  practically  free  from  paraffin,  lubricants  made  here  do  not  require 
cooling  or  pressing,  but  have  a  very  low  cold  test  naturally.  Filtration 
(through  l)one-coal)  is  not  practiced  here,  unless  at  one   retinery. 

Distillation  for  Asphalt.— Large  quantities  of  the  heavier  oils  are 
now  being  distilled  for  the  i)roduction  of  asphalt.  It  will  be  noted 
from  the  tables  immediately  al)ove  that  the  oils  heavier  than  l(i°  Be. 
contain  little  if  any  of  the  lighter  products,  gasoline  being  entirely 
alisent,  and  kerosene  present  only  in  minute  quantity,  ^^'here  oils  of 
this  nature  are  distilled,  the  asphalt  is  the  product  of  value,  the  dis- 
tillate having  practically  the  same  value  as  crude  oil. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  these  heavy  <listillates 
into  lighter  products,  either  by  manipulation  of  the  original  distilla- 
tion, or  by  .subsequent  treatment,  but  so  far  none  of  the.^^e  processes 
have  met  Avith  commercial  success.  The  reason  is  ])robably  not  far  to 
seek.  These  heavy  oils  are  su])ject,  like  any  others,  to  decomposition, 
but  owing  to  their  (diemical  constitution,  the  light   products  of  deconi- 


204  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

I 

position  liave  no  commercial  value,  being  very  foul,  difficult  to  purify, 
and  not  retaining  their  color  when  purified.  Further,  if  the  decompo- 
sition is  effected  in  the  crude  still,  the  quality  of  the  asphalt  is  seriously 
injured;  while  if  effected  in  a  second  distillation,  the  cost  is  prohibitive, 
as  only  a  small  portion  of  the  oil  can  be  cracked  down  in  a  single  dis- 
tillation, and  the  gas  loss  is  very  high.  Certain  reasons  why  this 
cracking  of  heavy  oils  into  light  will  probably  never  be  possible  with 
California  oils,  are  given  in  the  following  chapter;  for  the  present,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  no  such  process  has  yet  been  made  to  succeed, 
and  the  practice  in  the  heavy  oil  refineries  is  to  take  every  precaution 
against  cracking. 

The  stills  used  in  these  plants  are  of  comparatively  large  size,  up  to 
six  hundred  barrels  each,  though  averaging  perhaps  half  that  capacity. 
They  are  strongly  constructed,  heavily  set,  and  carefully  covered  in. 
Large  condenser  area  and  surface  are  also  provided,  to  reduce  pressure 
on  the  still  to  a  minimum.  The  coolers  are  of  large  size,  generally  so 
constructed  as  to  hold  several  runs,  the  asphalt  being  let  in  on  top 
and  drawn  off  below  at  the  same  time. 

The  distillates  from  these  oils  range  from  24°,  where  a  very  large 
steam  supply  is  given  the  stills,  to  27°,  where  less  steam  is  used;  the 
quality  of  the  asphalt  is  probably  somewhat  improved  by  the  use  of  a 
plentiful  steam  supply. 

Oil  Asphalt. — The  asphalt  left  as  a  residue  in  the  distillation  of  Cali- 
fornia crude  oil  is  a  very  peculiar  and  highly  valuable  product,  and 
merits  an  extended  description. 

According  to  the  amount  of  distillate  removed  from  the  crude  oil, 
oil  asphalt  is  a  thickly  fluid  or  solid  substance.  The  liquid  grades  are 
usually  somewhat  stiffer  than  molasses,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  becom- 
ing completely  liquid  at  moderate  heat.  The  color  by  reflected  light  is 
lustrous  black,  with  sometimes  a  faint  brownish  or  purplish  tinge,  but  by 
transmitted  light,  in  very  thin  layers,  is  deep  ruby  red.  There  is  little 
or  no  odor,  usually  a  slight  salty  taste.  The  solid  grades  range  from  a 
consistency  which  may  be  worked  between  the  fingers  to  one  of  great 
hardness  and  friabilit3\  These  grades  have  a  very  high  luster,  and  are 
jet  black.  The  medium  grades  are  extremely  ductile,  and  when  of 
good  quality  are  capable  of  being  drawn  into  threads  of  microscopic 
fineness,  many  feet  in  length.  These  medium  qualities  are  stiffly  vis- 
cous; that  is,  even  when  hard  enough  to  be  shivered  by  a  sharp  blow, 
they  are  deformed  by  steady  pressure,  this  quality  sometimes  being  so 
noticeable  that  asphalts  which  might  be  walked  over  without  being 
marked  will  soon  bury  any  small  object  left  lying  on  the  surface. 

Table  26,  following,  shows  the  principal  physical  characteristics  of 
the  various  grades  of  oil  asphalt.  These  are  considered  average  samples, 
but  there  is  some  difference  in  the  output  of  different  plants. 


CALIFORNIA    ()IL-KEFININ(J    INDUSTRY.  205 

TABLE  26.     PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CALIFORNIA  OIL  ASPHALTS. 


Grade. 

Specific- 
Gravity.' 

Penetration 

Melting 
Point. 2 

Flash 
Point. 

Hnrniiin 
Point. 

t'onsistcncy  at  f.o°  F. 

L 

0.985 

75°  C. 

175°  C. 

205°  C. 

Thick  liquid. 

G 

1.010 
1.045 

85 
130 

180 
190 

215 
245 

Gummv,  semi-solid. 

E 

27.7 

Somewhat  plastic. 

D 

l.OSO 

18.6 

135 

200 

270 

Firm,  tenacious. 

C 

1.085 

8.M 

155 

220 

270 

Rather  brittle. 

B 

1.100 

4.1 

180 

250 

300 

Very  brittle. 

1  The  specitic  gravity  varies  somewhat,  on  any  one  grade,  with  differences  in  the 
crude  oil. 

2 No  detinite  melting  point.  At  temperature  stated  the  asi>halt  is  completely  and 
rather  thinly  liquid. 

Oil  asphalts  are  acted  on  in  the  usual  manner  by  solvents  for 
asphaltic  bitumens.  They  give  up  a  small  amount  of  soluble  matter 
to  absolute  alcohol,  are  partly  soluble  in  light  petroleum  gasolines, 
completely  but  not  permanently  soluble  in  heavy  California  naphthas, 
completely  and  permanently  soluble  in  the  heavy  oils  from  California 
petroleum,  but  less  readily  and  completely  in  the  heavy  oils  from 
paraffin-bearing  petroleums.  They  are  completely  soluble  in  benzole 
and  heavier  coal-tar  oils,  in  carbon  bisulphid,  chloroform,  and  carbon 
tetrachlorid,  and  partially  soluble  in  ether  and  acetone.  The  usual 
analysis,  by  solution  in  turn  in  gasoline  or  ether,  and  carbon  bisulphid 
or  chloroform  {i.  e.,  the  separation  into  "petrolene"  and  "asphaltene"), 
is  not  very  informing,  as  the  results  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  the 
conditions  under  which  the  estimation  is  made,  and  seem  to  have  very 
little  relation  to  the  working  value  of  the  bitumen.  Neither  petrolene 
nor  asphaltene,  as  thus  separated,  are  simple  substances,  as  may 
readily  be  proven  by  the  fact  that  asphalt  of  ordinary  hardness  (a  "  C  " 
or  "D"  grade)  will  give  up  soluble  matter  in  turn  to  alcohol,  light 
petroleum  gasoline,  sulphuric  ether,  benzole,  turpentine,  and  chloroform, 
all  the  substances  thus  isolated  having  different  physical  pro})erties. 
The  actual  chemical  constitution  of  these  asphalts  may  be  said  to  be 
entirely  unknown.  They  are  knowm  to  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
carbon,  and  a  small  percentage  of  hydrogen;  sulphur  is  nearly  always 
present  in  slight  amount,  but  appears  to  be  incidental,  as  is  oxygen, 
and  occasional  traces  of  nitrogen.  It  is  very  likely  that  these  Ijodies 
consist  of  hydrocarbons  with  a  very  high  carbon  percentage.  They  are 
hardened  by  the  addition  of  sulphur,  at  moderately  high  temperatures, 
hydrogen  being  given  off  as  hydrogen  sulphid,  and  this  treatment 
carried  to  its   limit  will  completely  remove  the  hydrogen,  leaving   a 


20(>  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

residue  of  coke.  Oxygen  has  tlie  same  effect,  eliminating  liydrogen  as 
water,  but  atmospheric  oxygen  at  normal  temperatures,  acting  much 
more  slowly,  seems  in  some  cases  to  be  actually  absorbed,  as  there  is 
sonu'times  an  increase  of  weight.  The  asphalts  formed  l)y  spontaneous 
oxidation  of  crude  oil  are  much  tougher  and  more  ductile  than  those 
due  to  forced  oxidation,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  constitutional  differ- 
ence. Forced  oxidation  has  a  tendency  to  decom})ose  the  asi)halt 
itself.  ])recipitating  free  carbon,  even  ])efore  any  great  hardness  is 
reached,  and  for  this  reason,  though  it  is  possible  to  convert  almost  the 
entire  weight  of  the  heavier  crude  oils  into  asphalt,  by  the  ap])lication 
of  oxygen  or  sulphur,  the  process  is  of  little  commercial  value. 

The  asphalt  produced  from  crude  oil  is  only  in  })art  present  in  the 
oil  before  being  distilled,  being  largely  formed  during  distillation. 
This  may  readily  l)e  shown  by  washing  crude  oil  with  excess  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  l\y  which  means  the  asphalt  may  1)e  entirely  removed. 
An  oil  which  would  produce  35%  of  asphalt  l)y  distillation  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  or  45%  to  50%  by  evaporation  in  contact  with  the  air, 
at  a  temperature  beloAv  its  l)oiling  point,  may  be  washed  quite  free  from 
any  black  tinge  witii  a  loss  of  from  10%  to  15%  of  its  bulk.  The  same 
thing  may  be  inferred  from  the  percentage  of  precipitable  asphaltene 
in  the  crude  oil.  Many  oils  yielding  the  above  percentage  (35%)  of 
asphalt  on  distillation  contain  less  than  2%  of  as])haltene,  which  at 
the  ordinary  ratio  of  one  part  asphaltene  to  four  parts  petrolene  (about 
the  usual  analysis  of  "D"  asphalt)  would  represent  10%  or  less  of 
actual  asphalt  in  the  crude  oil.  The  asphalt  appears  to  be  produced 
by  partial  decomposition  of  the  heavier  portions  of  the  crude,  and  the 
percentage  yield  is  to  some  extent  dependent  on  the  conditions  under 
which  distillation  is  carried  out.  Forced  distillation  at  high  tempera- 
tures gives  a  larger  yield  of  asphalt,  Vmt  of  lower  grade  than  that  pro- 
duced by  slow  distillation  witli  a  large  steam  supply.  The  critical 
temperature  for  the  production  of  asphalt  seems  to  lie  about  600°  F. 
Below  this  temperature  the  action  of  the  still  is  merely  one  of  concen- 
tration; that  is,  a  sample  of  the  residue  drawn  from  the  still,  and 
l)lende(l  with  a  })roportion  of  distillate  equal  to  the  amount  distilled  off, 
will  have  the  same  percentage  of  asphalt  as  the  original  crude.  But 
a])()ve  this  temperature  the  crude  commences  to  be  actually  converted 
into  asi)halt,  and  a  sample  withdrawn  from  the  still  and  blended  with 
the  proper  proportion  of  distillate  will  contain  more  asi)halt  than  the 
original  crude  oil,  the  j)ercentage  of  excess  increasing  with  the  length 
of  time  to  which  the  oil  has  been  exposed  to  heat  in  the  still.  How- 
ever, where  steam  is  used,  the  temperature  need  l)e  raised  but  little 
above  600°  F.,  it  l)eing  (piite  possible  to  reduce  the  oil  to  any  grade  of 
asphalt  desired  without  passing  600°  F.;  distillation  in  this  manner  is 
very   slow,  and  a  large  amount   of  steam  is   recpiircd.     The  distillates 


CALIFOl^NIA    ()II.-KKK1MN(;     INDISTUV.  '^07 

show  l)y  their  gravity  that  very  much  less  ik-eDiiipositiou  has  taken 
phice  than  where  higher  temperatures  are  maintained,  the  gravity  of 
the  entire  bulk  distiUate  from  15°  erude  running  a))()ut  20°  Be.  where 
the  still  was  kept  at  650°  F.,  while  if  run  at  750°  F.,  about  the  usual 
temperature,  the  gravity  would  run  sonicwliere  about  26°  Be. 

Oil  asphalts  are  very  little  affeeted  by  water,  either  i)ure  or  mineral- 
ized, or  by  solutions  of  an  alkaline  nature.  Acids  without  oxidizing 
power  attack  them  l)ut  little,  but  the  oxidizing  acids  and  chlorin  water 
destroy  them  rajjidly.  Their  innnunity  from  decay  in  contact  with 
water  particularly  tits  them  for  street  paving,  and  for  use  in  other  situ- 
ations where  natural  asphalts  are  decomposed.  In  contact  with 
air  thev  are  reasonably  durable,  though  somewhat  less  so  than  the 
natural  asphalts,  gradually  losing  their  ductility,  and  becoming  friable, 
and  finally  oxidizing  to  a  l)rown  powder;  this  action  is  very  kIoav. 

The  greatest  advantage  possessed  by  oil  asphalts  is  their  freedom 
from  impurity.  AVhere  properly  prepared,  as  almost  the  entire  output 
now  is.  they  contain  Init  a  trat-e  of  mineral  matter,  and  generally  less 
than  one  per  cent  of  "organic  matter  not  bitumen.''  The  latter  is  mis- 
named in  this  case,  as  the  insoluble  combustible  matter  in  oil  asplialt 
is  not  organic  in  any  sense,  Imt  consists  of  free  carbon  in  finely  pul- 
verized form,  produced  by  slight  local  overheating  of  the  stills  during 
distillation.  This  carbon,  being  entirely  neutral  and  stable,  is  no  det- 
riment to  the  quality  of  the  asphalt,  and  should  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  the  organic  matter  in  natural  asphalts,  which  is  actually 
organic,  and  subject  to  decay.  The  mineral  matter  consists  of  traces 
of  sand  and  of  microscopic  silicious  skeletons  of  marine  diatoms.  Clay 
is  very  seldom  found  in  sufficient  (luantity  to  l)e  distinguished  from  the 

silica. 

Owing  to  their  freedom  from  insoluble  matter,  these  asphalts  are  very 
suitable  for  the  preparation  of  paints  and  varnishes,  though  not  of 
goods  of  the  highest  grade.  The  freedom  from  infusible  matter  is  of 
considerable  importance,  as  it  enables  them  to  be  melted  and  kept 
melted  without  the  coking  or  sedimenting  of  kettles,  and  as  they  melt 
at  a  comparatively  low  temperature,  and  are  very  fluid  when  melted, 
they  are  handled  and  applied  with  great  ease.  For  operations  involv- 
ing coating,  dipping,  painting,  or  saturating,  they  are  unexcelled,  as 
they  adhere  firmly  to  paper,  wood,  and  all  metals,  and  form  a  close, 
i-oherent,  and  l)rilliant  coating.  They  are  rather  more  affected  l)y 
changes  of  temperature  than  are  natural  asphalts. 

Liquid  Asphalts  are  used  largely  as  fluxes  f(n-  hard  natural  asphalts, 
and  for  this  purpose  are  unequaled.  They  are  actual  solvents  of 
asphalts  of  all  kinds,  and  the  mixture  once  effected  is  absolutely  per- 
manent, there  ])eing  no  danger  of   separation,  even    if   the    mixture   is 

14— BUL.  :52 


208  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

kept  molted  for  a  long  time.  It  is  evident  enough  that  a  suljstanee 
which  dissolves  asphalt  is  a  more  rational  flux  than  a  substance  which, 
like  the  residuum  of  paraffin  petroleums,  has  to  be  mixed  and  kept 
mixed  with  the  asphalt  by  a  strong  air  l)last  or  other  means  of  agitation. 

Paving". — Oil  asphalts  have,  within  the  past  few  years,  been  exten- 
sively used  for  paving,  and  while  the  earliest  experiments  were  not 
altogether  successful,  more  extended  experience  seems  to  have  proven 
their  entire  suitability  to  this  use.  The  grades  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose  are  soft  "D,"  or  "E,"  ranging  in  penetration  from  20  to  40 
(Dow  scale).  These  grades  are  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
may  be  marked  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers;  at  this  hardness  they 
are  free  from  crumbling  at  low  temperatures.  As  these  asphalts  are 
practically  free  from  any  foreign  substance,  it  is  usually  considered 
essential  to  include  in  the  paving  mixture  a  certain  amount,  say  ten 
per  cent  or  so,  of  finely  powdered  mineral  matter,  to  fill  the  voids 
between  the  finer  sand  grains.  The  nature  of  this  mineral  matter  does 
not  seem  to  be  of  any  particular  importance,  so  long  as  it  is  insoluble, 
as  its  action  in  the  mixture  is  purely  a  physical  one,  and  there  is  no 
combination  except  that  of  cohesion  between  the  mineral  matter  and 
the  asphalt.  Some  of  the  recorded  failures  of  oil  asphalt  for  paving 
were  undoubtedly  due  to  the  omission  of  this  fine  mineral  matter.  It 
is  a  point  sometimes  overlooked,  in  proportioning  a  paving  mixture, 
that  an  asphalt  which  will  not  crumble  at  very  low  temperatures,  will 
be  permanently  plastic  at  normal  temperatures,  and  that  if  voids  are 
left  between  the  sand  grains,  the  latter  will  roll  on  each  other,  and  the 
pavement  be  rapidly  pressed  out  of  shape.  The  object  of  the  finely 
pulverized  mineral  matter  is  simply  to  wedge  the  grains  of  sand,  and 
thus  to  prevent  this  rolling  action,  and  where  the  sand  is  clean  and  the 
asphalt  free  from  any  insoluble  matter,  as  is  California  oil  as])halt,  this 
detail  is  all  important. 

Some  of  the  best  pavements  in  the  city  of  San  Francisco  and  of  Los 
Angeles  have  been  laid  with  oil  asphalt,  and  numerous  other  satisfactory 
pavements  of  this  nature  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  the  State. 
Several  of  these  pavements  have  been  laid  eight  years  or  longer, 
and  are  still  in  the  best  of  condition,  having  been  practically  free 
from  the  necessity  of  repairs  in  the  meantime. 

The  stone-block  pavements  in  San  Francisco  are  grouted  with  cement, 
but  are  laid  on  a  foundation  composed  of  broken  stone  with  oil  asphalt, 
as  are  also  the  later  sheet  asphalt  pavements.  The  binder  coat  thus 
formed  is  elastic,  durable,  and  cheap,  readily  cut  and  repaired.  It  is 
much  more  stable  than  a  sand  cushion,  while  the  asphalt  renders  the 
pavement  less  noisy  than  where  the  wearing  surface  is  laid  directly 
over  cement. 


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...SOU I .iiiil 89tegnA  wuli 

..IbOOAooaxDnxnlinaa  .gniMii/a  yJILWl 

. -JTiBW!9*ft  oamyj  , j oaeioiiBi^.  xi£8  ^;^xblix/a  aJfiM! 

baanisCl  .1  'aruoJ  ' - . . oiiiaionail  nBQ\^nihliufl  ftinuIOiJUfij 


li  ssil/i 


i...^.3ioa.w  J 


...3U0... 


ii-.-. dgsiG  ikahl 


TABLE  27.    LIST  OF  CALIFORNIA  OIL  REFINERIES. 


American  Oil  and  Asphalt  Co 

Asphalt  and  Oil  Refining  Co 

British-California  Refining  Co. 

California  Consolidated  Oil  Fields  Co 

California- Fresno  Oil  Co 

California  Liquid  Asphalt  Co 

Capitol  Refining  Co 

Clark  Refined  Oil  Co 

Columbian  Oil.  Asphalt,  and  Refining  Co, 

Coombs  Refining  Co... 

Den  8  mo  re-Stabler  Refining  Co - 

Eastern  Consolidated  Oil  Co -. 

?nles  Oil  Refining  Co 

King  Refining  Co 

Meridian  Oil  Co .. 

National  Oil  Refining  Co 

Navajo  Oil  and  Refining  Co 

Franklin  Oil  and  Refining  Co. 

Pacific  Coast  Oil  Co 

Pacific  Oil  Refinery 

Pacific  Oil  Transportation  Co 

Pacific  Refining  Co. 

Pacific  States  Refinery  Co 

PnenteOilCo 

Southern  Refining  Co 

Southwestern  Oil  Refining  Co 

Sunset  Oil  Refining  Co. 

Texas  and  California  Refining  Co 

The  Paraffin  Paint  Co 

in  Consolidated  Refining  Co 

jnOilCo. 

>n  Oil  Co -.- - 

Valley  Oil  Refining  Co 

■an  Oil  and  Refining  Co 


Plant. 

Los  Angeles 

Los  Angeles 

Lo^  Angeles 

Sunset 

Fresno 

Summerland 

Stockyards 

Kern  River 

Carpinteria 

Los  Angeles 

Los  Angeles 

Kern  River 

Los  Angeles 

Kern  River 

Los  Angeles 

Rodeo _. 

Sunset 

Los  Angeles 

Pdint  Richmond. 

Los  Angeles 

Gaviota. 

Bakersfield 

Fruitvale _. 

Chino 

Los  Angeles 

Kern  River 

Obispo , 

Los  Angeles 

Parafl3n  Station 

Los  Angeles 

Kern  River 

Oleom 

Half  Moon  Bay. 
Kern  River 


Los  Angeles  ... 
Los  Angeles  ... 
Los  Angeles  -.. 

Kern 

Fresno 

Santa  Barbara . 

Alameda 

Kern ._ 


Santa  Barbara 
Los  Angeles 
Los  Angeles 

Kern 

Los  Angeles 

Kern 

Los  Angeles 
Contra  Costa 

Kern 

Los  Angeles 
Contra  Costa 
Los  Angeles 
Santa  Barbara 

Kern.. 

Alameda 

San  Bernardin 
Los  Angeles  .. 

Los  Angeles  .. 
Los  Angeles  .. 

Alameda 

Los  Angeles  -. 

Kem 

Contra  Costa.. 
San  Mateo  — 


731  Lawrence  Street,  Los  Angeles  ... 

Box  893,  Los  Angeles -.. 

214  Stimson  Building,  Los  Angeles.. 

Bakersfield 

735  F  Street,  Fresno -. 

Santa  Barbara  ...^ 

435  Rialto  Building,  San  Francisco.. 

Bakersfield ._ 

San  Francisco  and  Boston,  Mass.  .-- 

Los  Angeles 

2474  East  Ninth  Street,  Los  Angeles. 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 

545  Bradbur>'  Block,  Los  Angeles 

137  Montgomery  St.,  San  Francisco  . 

Los  Angeles 

228  Parrott  Building.  San  Francisco. 

Los  Angeles 

Box  63.  Los  Angeles - 

Rialto  Building,  San  Francisco 

Los  Angeles 

327  Market  Street,  San  Francisco 

Bakersfield 

Alameda - 

14  Baker  Block,  Los  Angeles 

237  Elmyra  Street,  Los  Angeles 

Los  Angeles 

Los  Angeles  and  Pittsburg,  Pa.. 

444  Wilcox  Building,  Los  Angeles  _. 

24  Second  Street,  San  Francisco 

Los  Angeles 

Mills  Building,  San  Francisco 

Mills  Building,  San  Francisco. - 

300  Clunie  Building,  San  Francisco.. 
San  Diego _ 


Carl  F.  Adam 

Jno.  L.  Sherwin  .. 

J.H.  McNeill 

H.  A.  Blodget  .... 
A.  C.  Ruschaupt-, 

E.  S.  Hadley 

T.  P.  Spiers 


J.  B.Fairfield.-. 
.T.  C.  Coombs 

E.  Densmore  ... 

Ernest  Cady 

Geo.  Hoehwell.. 
D.  B.  King 

F.  H.  Dunham  . 
Chas.  L.  Swan  .. 


A.W.  E.Thompson. 

H.  M.  Tilford 

H.  W.  A-mes 


T.  Spellacy 

G,  W.  C.  Baker.-- 
Wm.  E.  Rowland... 
Harrington  Brown, 

C.  H.  Ritchie 

J.  A.  Dubbs 

A.W.  E.Thompson. 

R.  S.  Moore 

J.  H.  Plumraer 

Lyman  Stewart 

Lyman  Stewart 

Louis  P.  Dunand.. 
L.  W.Goff 


F.  E.  Lowry 

8.  M.  Butler 

F.  R.  Kellogg 

R.  Shaw , 

K.  W.  Ruschaupt.. 
Edwin  F.  Smith  .,. 
F.  J.  Brandon 


E.  Stevens 

Florence  Coombs . 
W.  H.  Barnard  ... 
Geo.  W.  Bennett-. 

R.  L.  Yickery 

S.  G.  O.  King 

A.  M.  Dunham  ... 


W.  W.  Burns... 
H.  C.  Breed  en  (Treas.) 
H.  J.  Van  Ness  . 


C.  H.  Eliassen  . 


H,  E.Graves 

Jno.  F.  Bacigalupi.. 

John  Die 

Geo.  H.  Speer 

L,  Hope  Coopers... 
R.  S.  Shainwald..- 

J.  F.  Cresser 

W.  A.  Carney 

W.  A.  Carney 

J.  C.  Perry  (Supt.). 
Miss  H.  C.  Sheldon 


California.. . 
California... 
California... 

Maine , 

California... 
California... 
California... 
California... 
Arizona 


Arizona 

Connecticut, 
California.. 
California... 
California... 
Arizona... - 


California.. 
Not  incorp. 


California.. 
California. 


W.  Virginia 

Delaware  , 

California 

California. 

California. 

California 

California 

Arizona.. 


[.  SouRCK  OF  Crcde  Used. 


Lo8  Angeles  _ 

Fullertbn  and  Coalinga  . 

Whittier.. 

Sunset 

Coalinga 

Summerland 

Kern  County 

Kern  River 

Summerland 


Various 

Kei-n  River 

Whittier 

Kern  River  _ 

Los  Angeles 

Cotflinga 

Sunset 

Los  Angeles 

Ventura,  Newhall.  and  Coalinga. 


Santa  Maria  . 
Kern  River .. 


Puente 

Whittier 

Kern  River 

Whittier  and  Ventura  . 
Los  Angeles 

Coalinga  and  Kern  Riv 


Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Light. 

Light,  distillate,  and  asphalt. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Light  and  asphalt. 

Distillates  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Distillates,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Lubricants  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Distillate,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  coke. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  and  fuel  residue. 

Distillates  and  asphalt. 


Kern  River.. 
Ventura,  etc.. 
San  Mateo ... 
Kern  River  - . 


Light. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Light. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  lubricants,  and  asphalt. 

Distillates  and  asphalt. 

Light,  distillate,  and  asphalt. 

Light,  and  fuel  residue. 

Distillate  and  asphalt. 


(a)  Owners  refused  information. 


(6)  Figures  doubtful.    Owners  refused  information. 


CALIFOUNIA    ()1I--RKFIN1N(;    INDl'STRY 


209 


The  Refining"  Industry  of  California  covers  the  oi)erations  of  some 
thirty-two  tinus,  with  thirty-four  rclining  ])hnits.  Tlic  accoiupanying 
table  (No.  27)  gives  a  list  of  these  ]»lants,  with  remarks  as  to  capacity 
ami  class  of  jirodiicts.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  it  may  be  state<l  tliat 
"light  products"  is  used  to  designate  the  articles  ranging  from  the 
lightest  gasoline  to  kerosene,  and  that  "distillate"  as  here  used  does  not 
refer  to  the  high-grade  article  of  that  name  usi'd  in  exi)losion 
engines,  but  to  the  crude  distillate  used  })rinci})ally  f(u-  fuel. 

The  asphalt  market  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  "California 
Asphaltum  Sales  Agency,"  a  mutual  association  of  a  number  of  the 
larger  refiners  of  asphalt,  who  j)Ool  their  sales  and  maintain  a  uniform 
|)rice. 


Xo.  38.     Machine  for  Makixg  Asphalt  Paper  Pipe.     A.  P.  P.  Co.,  Los  Angeles. 


No.  oil.     Cai.ikokma  Oil  Asphalt  -Heauim;  the  Uakkels 


208 


ke])t  i" 

w  hich  „  .J  p^  lyTKo  oUL 

like   tl 


lO.KOlTAOoJ 


mixed  "^ 

Xui;(8i»k>jjnA  eoJ 

PaVwi-ui, fcslas"^  80»i4ii..-.,  eabsf'A  *io»l 

Sively  j^^^^  eabanA  eoJ 

altoffel  -ST 

their  e 

lu.;^ on?9i1. 

piirpoi- 

f  Dow  I--  ^^^''^^  uia&8 

may  b| eiwoiclA 

are  frtl  mail 

practic 

essenti 
per  ce 
betwee 
not  se( 
as  its  { 


combir  l  jUj  v^u- htj^I 


the  as 
were  u 
is  a  pi 
that  a 
be  pen 
left  be 
pavem 


—  asbgoA  eoJ 

.-.^  89l3§JrtA  80 J 

ii- ai9Ji 

L-.-  gabgoA  aoJ 


;.--,a9fe§aA  aoJ 
ifiJeoQ^iiaoO 

xnaX 

^)iUiv«i»i&saA  eoJL 
.j^tiioSt  isxtnoG 

asIojjaA  aoJ 

pulver  ji.  wiadsBa  J810B8 
thus  tc 
asphal 
detail : 
Som 
Angele 
pavem 


PboDUCM  Ma«?a''ko^ 


loaiinacvsaS.  as& 

L—    aalaaaA.aoJL 

.  .-.ii. maJiL 

Severa^;,u..  «»f«i^toAaod. 
and  ai 


from  t] 
The 
but  art 
as  are 


dJiiifSsiosnA  aoJL 
i  !J4^  I. . .. .  alisinsl  A:' 

aab^aA  aoJ 

1  Jilsjj^ aiaJi 


formedfura-stBoO  jiitaoO 

much  ] 

pavemi 


iilivix ma^ 


over  cei 


B^l98nA«OvI;],v»»»n(l-at'tai«P.lIfirfq8A  baa  liO  naorrsmA 

oO  gninftsH  liO  btiailaxiqaA 

,,e9JiS«A^0iJ   .;.Ur:!-'i!-...,,oO(  s^^nSft?  aimoiilaO-deiJha 

i^ntiuii  u-..  ,oO  ei(liM?>ltIiO  batabiloanoO  aimolilaO 

,. onsyjil  w>i-ii()^4)«U>, oO  liO  onaai'i-armolilaD 

.  fifial-i9tea«jft  a.«^M4H4-«».ph«5(*l«'IqaA  blopiJ  aimolilaO 

abia'fdp^HJr  .. ^.^^^i^iipO  ■sniaUsa  loiiquD 

...  •lavifliOrwyl  ,  .:- oO  liO  benfigfl  jJialO 

i,oQ:8diac^ttvfina,Hadq8A  ,110  naidmuloO 
lubricaJH>vujui^<ipl«iDO  sniaasH  admooO 
lulM-icaJiUr«>3'^«'oQ»S-  i9ldaJ8-9iorn8n9C[ 
Uj*,.Ubxi«aiiieOi  lilO  .teJBbUoanoO  mgiaaa 
luiui(Cii».w,^wtli»JBpi8lrJinfi9iI  JiO  89l0Oi9H 

».U'-j.'jMj-a*V^wiLu oO  gninagH  sniH 

aiUs.ttad.sto.i»lMUi oO  I/O  naibhaK 

Luivitaji.u,-»iiuUtOp!^na9S  liO  lanoitaZ 
iUiiuiii-aifJuiljoO  jjninftoil  hna  liO  oiavaX 
iUi,-Luhjti!i>.^iuaaa  ;l>f»eiliO  nililnail  vrsV. 
luiuucaii.lti^a£ul£tikc-..oO  liOvfeaoO  oaiaal 

ajid.tutlj'ii.siitOi-noxJaJioqanaiT  liO  Dftioal 

iLas.a.'id^sj>halL oD  8nina9il  aflbal 

oO  Yignftgfl  esiaiS  oftioal 

dnidO  oO  liO  9ln90<I 

e9l9snAiabJ  iuJuLix.aJiLa.^axul.aspiJoD.>jnina9H  mgdtuoS 

1971^  iria3I'iiUi.aii  J-a^iLlioO  gainftgH  liO  moiegwdiuoB 

.-oq«idO  oO  ^aiaheSl  iiO  iaenx/g 

89l9§nA'«Kl' tL'iiUid-fiePiadlna9fl  aimoiilaO  bna  aaxeT 

ii  noiJaJB  iirBaiB'I  _....  ^oOUirial  nEBaia^  9dT 


8n*taI«(«Dl 

89j93ai^)|||(Kl, 

e9l9§nAiaoJ, 

•i9YiH'aKw3i 

e9l93nA,>ao»I 

i9Yia!i«wHl 

e9i9gja  AiBiOil. 

,.  cfefeja 

.- „.i48a«S) 

89l9sn  A>  iaoill 

libaHindaiSL  iaiAH.. 

89l9anA!a0iI. 

- aiobmH. 

.  Ji^-vix. aiaX  j hlgfle-ldifaiai 

eb9iaaIA  BlB'/ihn'i. 


89l9§nAa{»J     L     yaimiJsillbslBbiloenoO  noirtTT 

tavifl  ktt»HiiiL'iij4.ijd.w»nh*lL oO  JiO  noin 

—  niapIO,  iH-Jal.ilaU:^»UjiASivtuUJ.. oO  IiO  noinU    T 

-.-5iaa  riooM'MaH  ...  ."„.  .ovO  griinftsfl  liO  \9lleY     \ 
—Tdvia  ith»(aUic^,......<^^^.oO  ■gainiiaSi  Ima  IiO  uaaloY 


(I))  Figures  doubtful.     Owners  refiLsed  informaiiou. 


CALIFOKMA    <)ir.-RKKININ(;    INDrSTKY 


209 


The  Refining"  Industry  of  California  covers  the  operations  of  some 
thirty-two  tinns,  with  tliirty-four  refining  ])hints.  Tlie  ae('oni})anying 
table  (No.  27)  gives  a  list  of  these  ])lants,  with  remarks  as  to  capacity 
and  class  of  jiroducts.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  it  may  he  state(l  that 
"light  products"  is  used  to  designate  the  articles  ranging  from  the 
lightest  gasoline  to  kerosene,  and  that  "distillate"  as  here  used  does  not 
refer  to  the  high-grade  article  of  that  name  used  in  exi)losion 
engines,  but  to  the  crude  distillate  used  princi})ally  for  fuel. 

The  as]dialt  market  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  "California 
Asphaltum  Sales  Agency,"  a  mutual  association  of  a  number  of  the 
larger  refiners  of  asphalt,  who  pool  their  sales  and  maintain  a  uniforn) 
price. 


No.  38.     Machine  for  Makixg  Asphalt  Paper  Pipe.     A.  P.  P.  Co.,  Los  Angeles. 


No.  MSI.     Calikoknia  Oil  Asi'halt -Heauinc;  the  IJakkels 


210 


PETROLEUM    I\    CALIFOKNIA. 


CALIFORNIA    OII.-HKKINING    INDUSTRY 


211 


Nil.  4li.        llKFlNKKV  — Asi'HAl.TI  M     AMiOii,     UkKIMM.    I 'c  iM  I' A  N  Y  .    1>c  IS    AngKLES, 


-4        k 

i 

.  ...r^ 

iiirii 

^.THMi 

mmm 

■f 

^'^ 

No.  48.     Refinery— California  LiQrin  Asphalt  Company.  Simmerland,  Cal. 


No.  44.     Refinery— Clakk  Refined  Oil  Company.  Kern  River  Oil  Fielh. 


212 


l'KTI{OI,KrM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


No.  45.     Refixeky— Columbian  Oil,  Asphalt  axd  Refining  Company. 
Carpinteria,  Cal. 


No.  46.     Refinery' — Coomus  Refining  Company,  Los  Angeles. 


No.  47.     Refineky— Dknsmoke-Stabler  Refining  Company,  Los  Angeles 


CALTFOKNIA    OlI.-RKFINING    INDUSTRY. 


213 


No.  48.     Refinery — Capitol  Refining  Co.,  Stockyards,  Cal. 


No.  49.     Refinery — Eastern  Cons.  On,  am>  RKKixrNt;  Co.,  Kern  Kiveh  (Mi.  Fiki.d 


214 


PETROLET'M    IN    CAI>IF()KNIA. 


No.  .")(!.     IvEFixEKY— Globe  Asphalt  Company,  Okispo,  Cai,. 


Xo.  ol.     Refinery — Globe  Asi-halt  Company,  Obispo,  Cal. 


CAI.IFOHNIA    ()II>-KKFININ(i    INDISTRY 


215 


Ni'.  vj.     IIefixeky— Hekciles  t)ii,  Rekim.ng  Company,  Los  Axwei.ks 


No.  .").;.     Refinkky — Kim;  Rekixixg  Company,  Kki:n  IIiveij  On.  I-'iki.h. 


2ir> 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


i 

IP 

1 A 
A  '  i  X] 

sA  '  i  >fi 

lil:^ 

*' 

'''".  wW 

1 

^ 

, 

IT 

;*> 

_^ 

2E1 

gnrJiM 

^ 

■^  .,.*■?**  >-^--j*^^:^i-- 

— '■ 

III 

lUl 

"._  p^ 

- 

' " 

~ 

No.  54.     Refixeky— Navajo  Oil  and  Kefim.xgCo.,  8rNSET,  Kerx  Cotnty,  Cal. 


No.  05.     New  Franklin  Oil  and  Refining  Company,  Los  Angeles 


Xo.  56.    Pacific  Oil  Refinery,  Los  Angeles. 


CAI.IKOHMA    ()1I.-1{KKININ(;    INDfSTKV 


21" 


Ni>.  r>7.     Refinery — Pacific  On.  Transportation  Company,  (iAVioTA.  Cal. 


No.  ."))S.     Kefineky — Pacific  Refinin<;  ('o.mi-any.  Bakeksfi 


No.  .■)!».     Kefineky — Piente  Oil  Company,  Chino,  Cm.. 


218 


ph:tkoleiim  in  California. 


N>>.  (id.     l^KFixEKY— SoiTHEKX  Refixim;  (Jdmpaxy,  Los  Axgeles. 


No.  <)1.     Rkfixery — SoiTHWESTEKX  Oil,  Refixixh  ("()..  Kekx  RivehOil  Field. 


C'AI.IKOKNIA    (»ll.-KKl'ININ(i     INDrsTHV 


'IV.) 


No.  Hi'.     Hefinery— I'xiox  Coxs.  On.  am>  REFixiN<i  Company.  Los  Axoeles. 


No.  63.     Refinery — Unihx  On.  Compa.xy  of  California,  Kern  KiverOii.  Field 


No.  t)4.     Refinery — \V)i.(  an  i  m,  ami  Kki-imni.  »  Umi'wv,  Kkiin  |;i\ki;»)ii.  liKin 


220  PETROLEUM    IX    CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER  1(). 
CHEMISTRY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PETROLEUM. 

The  chemistry  of  the  petroleiuus  produced  in  California  is  involved  in 
considerable  obscurity.  Investigations  of  this  character  are  so  difticuh. 
and  tedious,  and  the  rewards  so  doubtful,  in  a  practical  way,  that  very 
little  research  along  these  lines  has  been  attempted,  and  it  is  probable 
that  no  single  sample  of  Pacific  Coast  petroleum  has  ever  been  resolved 
into  its  proximate  constituents.  But  though  detailed  information  is 
lacking,  some  facts  of  a  general  nature  may  be  brought  forward,  and 
these  points,  scattering  as  they  may  be,  will  yet  throw  some  light  on 
the  ultimate  nature  of  the  oils  with  which  we  have  to  deal. 

Hydrocarbons. — It  is  very  evident,  from  a  good  many  considera- 
tions, that  the  hydrocarbons  making  up  the  l)ody  of  California  petro- 
leum are  radically  different  from  those  of  the  oils  of  the  Eastern  States. 
The  low  flash  point  and  l»oiling  i)oint  in  relation  to  the  specific  gravity, 
the  practical  or  entire  absence  of  solid  paraffins,  the  presence  of 
asphalt  in  most  of  our  oils,  and  its  ready  formation  on  heating  oils 
from  which  it  has  been  removed,  or  in  which  it  Avas  originally  absent. 
the  rapid  fall  in  viscosity  of  the  heavier  oils  Avith  rising  temperature, 
and  the  strong  tendency  of  most  of  our  oils  to  oxidation,  all  point  to 
the  probability  that  the  composition  of  our  oil  is  <juite  distinct  from 
that  of  Eastern  petroleum. 

The  petroleum  of  the  Eastern  States  is  known  to  consist  almost 
entirely  of  paraffins  in  the  lighter  members,  and  of  paraffins  and 
olefins  in  the  heavier  portions.  The  petroleums  of  the  Caucasus  are 
stated  to  consist  principally  of  the  naphthene  group,  while  some 
German  petroleums  are  stated  to  contain  notable  proportions  of  hydro- 
carbons of  the  l)enzene  series.  Various  observers'  have  found  in  Cali- 
fornia petroleum  all  of  these  constituents,  and  as  a  discussion  of  this 
very  abstract  question  would  be  out  of  place  here,  reference  is  given  to 
the  original  papers  for  justification  of  the  statement  that  most  Cali- 
fornia })etroleums,  or  rather  their  distillation  products,  contain  hydro- 
car'bons  of  all  the  following  series:  i>araffins,  olefins,  probably  acetylenes 
and  other  highly  unsaturated  compounds.  nai)litbenes  (cyclo])araffins), 
and  aromatic  (ben/.ene)  compounds. 

1  Consult— 

A.  S.  Cooper.     Mining  and  Scientitic  Prej?s,  82-123 ;  Bulletin  1(3,  State  Mining  Bureau. 

Felix  Lengfeld  and  Edmund  O'Neill.     Amer.  Cheni.  .Tour.,  15-1!». 

Charles  F.  Mabery.     Am.  Cheni.  Jour.,  l!)-7!)(v,  Am.  Cheni.  .Tour.,  2.V2.")8;  .lour.  Sdc. 

Chem.  Ind.,  19-502. 
S.  F.  Peckham.     Am.  ,Tonr.  Science.,  3-18-2.^0;  Science,  23-74. 
Clinton  Richardson,     .lour.  Soc.  Cliem.  Ind.,  l!t-123. 
Frederick  Snhithe.      13lli  IJe]>()rt  of  tlie  State  Mineralogist. 


CHEMISTRY    OF   CAIJFOKNIA    PETROLEIM.  221 

A  very  few  of  the  local  oils  give  a  light  clistilhite  wliic  li  appears,  from 
its  specific  gravity  and  other  i)hysical  properties,  to  consist  largely  of 
paraffins,  but  the  major  part  of  our  oils  give  a  light  distillate  which  is 
much  heavier  than  a  mixture  of  paraffins  of  corresponding  hoiling 
point  could  be.  By  acting  on  these  gasolines  and  kerosenes,  the  olefins 
may  be  removed,  and  as  sulphuric  acid  used  in  excess  absorbs  but  a 
very  small  proportion,  it  niay  be  assumed  that  the  olefins  are  not  pres- 
ent in  large  quantity.  After  rigorous  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid,  a 
varying  but  large  proportion  of  the  oil  is  acted  on  by  nitric  acid,  form- 
ing a  stable  nitro-compound,  and  leaving  a  residue  which  can  not  be 
further  affected.  This  residue  is  very  much  lighter  than  the  original 
oil,  and  from  its  resistance  to  all  reagents  probably  consists  of  pure 
paraffins.  The  portion  removed  by  nitric  acid  may  be  either  benzenes 
or  naphthenes,  or  both.  It  is  probable  that  the  latter  is  the  case, 
though  the  percentage  of  benzenes  must  usually  be  quite  small,  as  the 
gravity  of  benzene  proper  (CMe)  is  about  28°  Be.,  and  the  boiling  point 
80°,  while  the  gravity  of  local  petroleum  distillate  boiling  at  this  tem- 
perature is  well  above  70°  Be.  It  is  apparent  that  if  the  distillate 
consisted  of  benzene  and  paraffins  alone,  the  gravity  of  benzene  being 
0.885,  and  of  a  mixture  of  hexane  and  heptane,  boiling  at  80°,  being 
0.766,  the  greatest  possible  proportion  of  benzene  in  a  mixture  of  0.700 
(70°)  gravity  would  be  16%. 

There  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  the  small  proportion  (if  any) 
of  aromatic  compounds  in  California  petroleum  Avill  ever  repay  the 
cost  of  separation,  particularly  as  these  substances  are  now  very  low 
in  price,  and  readily  obtainable  otherwise.  But  the  presence  of  the 
naphthenes  very  seriously  affects  the  quality  of  some  of  the  products 
of  our  petroleum,  notably  the  kerosenes. 

It  has  been  pretty  well  proven  by  experience  that  a  kerosene,  to  be 
rated  first  quality,  must  consist  practically  of  paraffins,  as  these  bodies 
are  the  most  stable  of  the  hydrocarbons,  and  contain  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  hydrogen.  It  is  necessary  that  the  hydrocarbons  should  be 
stable,  that  is,  not  subject  to  oxidation  or  to  spontaneous  decompo- 
sition, as  otherwise  the  kerosene  Avill,  on  standing,  lose  its  white  color, 
acquire  a  foul  odor,  and  be  otherwise  deteriorated.  Also,  the  higher 
the  percentage  of  hydrogen  in  the  kerosene,  the  smaller  will  be  the 
proportion  of  air  required  for  complete  combustion,  and  the  less  the 
tendency  to  smoking  when  burned.  The  olefins,  which  come  next  to 
the  paraffins,  contain  more  carbon  and  less  hydrogen,  and  are  more 
unstable.  Consequently,  kerosene,  like  the  oils  produced  by  cracking 
paraffin  petroleums,  which  consist  largely  of  olefins,  is  of  distinctly 
inferior  quality.  The  naphthenes  contain  a  still  larger  percentage  of 
car])on  and  a  smaller  percentage  of  hydrogen  than  the  olefins,  })ut  are 


222  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

more  ntable,  consequently  a  kerosene  constituted  (like  that  j)roduce(l 
locally)  largely  of  these  bodies,  will  have  more  tendency  to  l)urn  with  a 
yellow  or  smoky  fiame  than  either  of  the  foregoing,  but  will  be  some- 
what more  stable,  when  purified,  than  a  kerosene  produced  by  cracking. 

The  cracking  of  paraffins  produces  lighter  paraffins  and  olefins,  the 
cracking  of  olefins  produces  olefins  and  also  acetylenes  or  other  highly 
unsaturated  and  very  unstable  bodies,  while  neither  the  naj)hthenes 
nor  the  benzenes  are  susceptible  to  cracking,  under  ordinary  conditions. 
For  this  reason,  the  attemi)t  to  improve  matters  with  our  oils  by  crack- 
ing has  merely  exaggerated  the  evil,  destroying  the  best  instead  of  the 
worst  elements  of  the  oil,  and  producing  large  quantities  of  very 
unstable  bodies  which  have  to  be  completely  removed  by  the  chemical 
treatment.  It  seems  altogether  probable  that  the  bad  qualities  found 
in  California  kerosene  are  inherent  in  the  nature  of  the  oil,  and  can 
not  be  removed  by  any  possible  treatment  or  manipulation. 

The  distillates  heavier  than  kerosene  appear  to  have  the  same  general 
constitution,  though  the  olefins  are  more  in  evidence.  The  rough 
separation,  Ijy  means  of  acid  solvents,  of  a  number  of  samples  of  heavy 
distillate  from  Kern  River  oil  (gravity  25°  to  27°  Be.)  indicates  the 
following  approximate  constitution: 

Oletins ' 30%  to  40  % 

Benzenes,  or  najilithenes,  or  l)oth 40%  to  50% 

Paraffins 15%  to  25% 

These  figures  are  very  rough,  but  they  are  sufficiently  reliable  to 
expose  the  fallacy  of  attempts  to  convert  heavy  crude,  or  the  heavy 
distillate  from  our  lighter  oils,  into  light  products  such  as  gaso- 
line and  kerosene.  The  decomposition  by  heat,  on  which  all  such 
processes  must  depend,  converts  the  olefins  into  very  unstable  and  foul- 
smelling  bodies,  while  the  benzenes  and  naphthenes  are  practically 
unaffected,  and  only  the  })araffins  are  changed  to  advantage.  As  the 
paraffins  in  the  heavy  distillates  are  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole,  and 
as  even  on  these  there  is  considerable  loss  in  the  treatment,  such  meth- 
ods would  be  entirely  impracticable,  even  aside  from  the  very  high  cost 
of  the  decomposition  itself,  and  of  the  subsequent  chemical  treatment 
necessary  to  remove  the  impurities  produced  from  the  olefins. 
Attempts  to  convert  these  heavy  oils  into  marketable  light  products 
are  based  on  what  appears  to  be  entire  ignorance  of  the  principles 
involved,  and  are  foredoomed  to  failure. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  small  yield  of  even  api)arently  valuable 
products,  take  the  case  of  a  sample  of  distillate  from  15°  crude  oil.  This 
sample  was  an  average  of  the  entire  run  of  distillate  from  a  batch  of 
"  D  "  asphalt,  and  had  the  gravity  of  25.6°  Be.  The  crude  oil  would  have 
yielded  practically  no  distillate  below  270°  C,  and  whatever  is  fountl 


CHEMISTRY    OF   CALIFORNIA    PETROLEUM.  223 

in  the  distillate,  boiling  below  this  temperature,  may  be  considered  as 
the  results  of  cracking. 

This  sample,  on  redistillation,  yielded  })ractically  nothing  below 
150°  C.  (the  ujiper  limit  for  the  gasolines)  and  37%  between  150°  and 
270°,  this  distillate  having  the  gravity  35°.  On  redistilling  this  frac- 
tion for  the  production  of  kerosene,  the  quantity  was  reduced  from 
37%  to  17%  of  the  bulk  distillate.  The  kerosene  thus  made  was  of  a 
dark  brown  color  and  had  a  frightful  odor.  On  treatment  Avith  small 
doses  of  ordinary  suli)huric  acid  until  the  odor  was  removed  and  a  per- 
manent white  color  obtained,  the  17%  was  reduced  to  12%,  the  difference 
being  absorbed  by  the  acid,  while  the  amount  of  acid  used  was  about 
three  times  the  bulk  of  the  white  kerosene  finally  produci'd.  The 
losses  due  to  conversion  of  oil  into  gas  during  the  first  distillation 
amounted  to  about  2%.  In  short,  the  total  reduction  (loss)  in  the  bulk 
of  oil,  in  decomposing  and  chemical  treatment,  was  7%  in  jiroducing 
12%  of  kerosene,  with  an  expenditure  of  acid  which  alone  would  amount, 
at  current  wholesale  rates,  to  about  45  cents  per  gallon  of  kerosene. 

Incidental  Constituents. — Sulphur  and  nitrogen  are  the  only  bodies 
found  in  California  petroleum,  aside  from  asphalt,  which  do  not  appear 
to  be  essential  to  the  make-up  of  the  oil  proper.  They  are  found  in 
almost  if  not  quite  all  of  the  petroleums  of  this  State. 

The  percentage  of  sulphur  is  usually  quite  small,  and  the  mode  of 
its  occurrence  does  not  seem  to  have  been  determined  with  certainty. 
From  some  crude  oils  it  is  given  off  during  the  early  stages  of  the 
distillation  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  where  much  water  is  pres- 
ent, even  as  free  sulphur.  The  heavier  oils  usually  pass  some  of 
the  sulphur  into  the  heavier  distillates,  where  it  forms  some  stable 
combination,  which  may  be  redistilled  without  decomposition.  This 
element  is  not  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  products,  as  is  the  sulphur 
in  some  of  the  Eastern  oils,  as  it  is  removed  very  readily  during  the 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Nitrogen  is  found  in  most  local  crude  oils,  and  appears  to  exist  in 
the  form  of  organic  (pyridin  ?)  bases,  soluble  in  dilute  acids. ^  It  is 
readily  removed  by  the  acid  treatment,  and  does  not  appear  to  have 
any  detrimental  effect. 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentages  of  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and 
asphaltene  in  samples  of  crude  oil  from  various  parts  of  the  State. 
The  sulphur  is  determined  by  combustion  with  sodium  peroxid,  the 
nitrogen  by  Kjeldahl's  method,  and  the  asphaltene  by  j')recipitation 
with  excess  of  70°  gasoline,  washing  and  weigliing.  As  the  samples  on 
which  these  determinations  were  made  are  not  always  identical,  the 
gravity  of  oil  used  is  stated  opposite  each  determination.     For  other 

1  See  F.  Salathe,  13th  Report  of  the  State  Mineralogist. 
15— BUL.   32 


224 


PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


figures  on  sulphur,  reference  may  be  had  to  the  analyses  of  Mr.  H.  N. 
Cooper,  in  the  last  table  in  this  bulletin: 

TABLE  28.     INCIDENTAL  CONSTITUENTS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE. 


Nitrogen. 


Gravity.     Per  cent 


SULPHIR. 


ASPHALTEXE. 


Gravity.      Per  cent. 


Gravity.     Per  cent 


Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Coalinga 

Kern  River. - 

8nnset 

Sunset 

Midway 

McKittrick  _. 
McKittrick ._ 
Santa  Maria. 
Sumnierland 

Ventura 

Los  Angeles. 


M° 

22 

19 

18 

16 

1.5 

10 

17 

20 

19 

15 

17 


0.063 

0..302 

0.314 

0.299 

0.375 

0.600 

0..S70 

0.476 

0.374 

0.800 

0.290 

0.430 

0.8801 

0.606  3 

0.648* 


34° 


0.068 

0.817 


18 


0.874 


1 

14   1  0.612 
10      1.2.53 

1 

18 

0.870 

.33° 

22 

19 

18 

16 

15 

10 

17 

20 

19 


None. 
2.04 
1.87 
2.83 
2.83 
3.06 
2.93 
3.01 
L80 
2.35 


14 


0..565 


15        I      0.898 
28        j      L500S 
14  1.082 


17 

8.37 

15 

.3.36 

26 

2.a5 

14 


3.99 


It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that  neither  sulphur  nor  nitrogen 
are  present  in  these  oils  in  such  quantity  as  would  interfere  with  refin- 
ing operations. 

The  following  table,  copied  from  a  paper"  by  Professor  Edmund 
O'Neill,  of  the  University  of  California,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  ultimate 
constitution  of  California  petroleum: 

'  S.  F.  Peckhani,  Am.  Jour.  Science,  48-250-2.55.     Mean  of  4  samples. 
■'  Mabery  it  Quayle,  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  19-502-508. 
^  Mabery  it  Hudson,  Am.  Chem.  .Jour.,  2.5-2.53.     Mean  of  13  samples. 
'  Mabery  &  Hudson,  Am.  Chem.  Jour.,  2.5-253.    Mean  of  4  samples. 
'.Tournal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  25-7,  709. 


CHKMISTKY    OF    CALIFORNIA    PETROLEUM. 


9-?; 


TABLE  29.     ULTIMATE  ANALYSES  OF  CALIFORNIA  CRUDE. 


District. 


Specific 
Gnivity. 


Hydrogen. 


Carbon. 


Colu.sa 

Bakersficld 

Whittier 

Ojai  Valley 

Kern 

BakerslieM 

Kern 

McKittrick. 


().!)7(KI 


Sunset 

Contra  Costa  . 

Coalinga 

Napa  Connty. 

Humbolilt 

Santa  Clara.-. 


().!«97 
0.98;% 
0.9572 
0.9572 
0.97(30 
0.9458 
0.9358 
().i).589 
0.ft653 
0.8620 
0.9603 
0.8810 
0.8515 


10.84% 

11.30 

11.50 

10.81 

12.16 

10.72 

11.18 

11.45 

11.30 

11.30 

10.83 

11.80 

11.13 

12.03 

12.88 


88.26% 

85.80 

86.09 

80.42 

84.86 

86..32 

82.45 

86.06 

85.75 

85.83 

84.66 

87.62 

88.08 

86.69 

86.08 


Regarding"  Purification. — The  objects  and  the  limitations  of  the 
chemical  treatment  applied  to  petroleum  distillates  are  so  well  known 
that  no  petroleum  refiner  needs  any  suggestions  on  this  subject.  But 
to  that  portion  of  the  general  public  which  comes  into  contact  with  tlie 
petroleum  business  on  the  refining  side,  a  brief  statement  may  be  of 
interest,  particularly  in  view  of  the  large  sums  which  have  been  wasted 
through  the  attempts  of  misguided  or  unscrupulous  inventors  of 
"processes.'' 

Petroleum  distillates  as  they  come  from  tlu'  still  are  comaminated  in 
various  ways,  with  nitrogen  and  sulphur  compounds,  with  asphalt  or 
with  the  obscure  substances  which  change  into  that  body  on  exposure 
to  the  air,  and  with  the  unstable  })roducts  of  decomposition.  These  are 
all  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  oil,  in  a  great  number  of  ways, 
and  the  object  of  the  ''treatment"  is  to  destroy  or  remove  these  sub- 
stances, leaving  the  oil  a  mixture  of  pure  and  stable  liydrocarl)ons. 

A  large  number  of  reagents  will  destroy  or  dissolve  some  of  these 
impurities,  but  very  few  will  attack  all  of  them,  especially  when  the 
choice  is  limited  to  the  commonest  and  cheapest  of  chemicals.  It  has 
been  proven  by  many  years'  experience,  that  to  remove  the  most 
refractory  of  the  impurities  the  treating  agent  must  act  not  only  as  a 
solvent,  but  also  as  an  oxidizing  agent,  actually  burning  up  and  destroy- 


226  PETROLEUM    IN    CALIFOKNIA. 

ing  a  portion  of  the  impurities.  It  is  probal)le  that  every  known 
oliemical  which  can  be  had  at  reasonable  cost  has  been  used  for  this 
l)urpose,  but  after  numberless  experiments  refiners  have  settled  on  com- 
mercial sulphuric  acid  as  being  not  only  much  the  cheapest,  but  also 
l)y  far  the  best,  of  all  the  reagents  available.  This  material  is  a  strong 
acid,  neutralizing  bodies  of  a  basic  nature,  a  powerful  solvent  for  the 
unsaturated  hydrocarbons,  and  one  of  the  strongest  oxidizing  agents 
known.  Furthermore,  it  is  very  heavy,  settling  readily  from  the  oil,  is 
extremely  cheap  and  everywhere  obtainable,  and  where  handled  with 
ordinary  discretion  is  free  from  any  bad  effects  on  the  oil. 

To  remove  certain  bodies  of  an  acid  nature,  not  acted  on  by  the  first 
treatment,  and  to  free  the  oil  from  any  traces  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  an 
alkaline  solution  must  be  used.  Almost  any  alkali  would  answer  this 
l)urpose,  so  long  as  it  is  soluble,  and  the  very  general  use  of  caustic 
soda  (sodium  hydrate)  for  this  purpose  is  due  simply  to  the  fact  that, 
aside  from  quicklime,  which  is  very  difficult  to  handle,  soda  is  by  far 
the  cheapest  alkali  known,  in  proportion  to  its  neutralizing  strength. 

In  treating  very  heavy  lubricating  oils,  any  liquid  treatment  is  unsatis- 
factory, for  the  reason  that  it  is  difficult  to  settle  out  the  reagents  and 
clear  the  oil.  So  that  in  this  field  there  is  undoubtedly  room  for 
improvement  over  the  present  processes,  though  there  seems  very  little 
present  prospect  of  such  improvement  being  made.  But  so  far  as  the 
treating  of  the  lighter  products  from  such  petroleum  as  that  of 
California  is  concerned,  it  seems  very  doubtful  indeed  whether  any 
improvement  over  the  present  well-known  methods  could  be  made.  To 
be  an  improvement,  the  new  process  must  be  either  cheaper  or  more 
effective;  effectiveness  is  a  matter  of  proof  in  any  particular  case,  and 
can  only  be  determined  by  a  careful  balancing  of  the  results  of  the  new 
methods  against  those  of  the  old,  taking  care  that  the  present  methods 
are  applied  to  the  samples  under  question,  by  some  one  familiar  with 
the  subject.  But  when  the  question  of  cost  is  considered,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  expense  for  the  chemicals  used  in  purifying 
the  lighter  oils  is  almost  infinitesimal,  Avhen  figured  down  to  a 
single  gallon.  The  cost  of  the  chemicals  used  in  finishing  a  gallon  of 
kerosene  should  not,  under  any  ordinary  circumstances,  be  more  than 
one-third  of  one  cent,  while  in  many  cases  it  is  very  much  less.  The 
claims,  sometimes  made,  of  a  saving  of  two  or  three  cents  per  gallon  in 
the  cost  of  treating  kerosene,  by  the  use  of  some  process,  are  patently 
absurd. 

Another  point  which  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  considering  the 
claims  of  "process  men,"  is  that  any  chemical  treatment  has  its  limita- 
tions, which  in  the  nature  of  things  can  not  be  passed.  The  object  of 
any  chemical  treatment  is  to  remove  impurities,  and  when  these  are 
removed,  purification   inevitably  ceases.     If  in  any  particular  case  the 


CHEMISTRY    OF    OALIKOKNIA    PETROLEUM.  227 

undesirable  qualities  to  be  corrected  in  a  distillate  are  due  to  impuri- 
ties, proper  treatment  will  correct  these  defects,  but  if  they  are  due  to 
the  nature  of  the  oil  itself,  treatment  can  not  and  Avill  not  be  a  remedy. 
Chemical  treatment  will  never  make  any  notable  change  in  the  specific 
gravity,  viscosity.  Hash  point,  or  boiling  ])oint  of  the  lighter  pro<lucts 
of  petroleum,  and  Avhere  defects  in  Inirning  (quality  or  otherwise  are 
due  to  these  points,  or  rather  to  the  chemical  nature  of  the  oil,  thus 
indicated,  no  imaginable  combination  or  manipulation  of  chemicals 
will  have  any  further  effect  than  would  be  realized  by  a  simple  treat- 
ment with  the  well-known  reagents  now  in  use. 

The  petroleum-refining  methods  now  in  vogue  are  so  well  settled,  by 
such  long  ex})erience,  that  progress  is  much  more  likely  to  be  in  the 
way  of  still  luanipulation,  of  reduction  of  fuel  and  steam,  in  prevention 
of  overheating  and  cracking,  in  brief,  in  the  adaptation  of  details  and 
proportions  to  the  particular  conditions  to  be  met,  than  in  inventions 
involving  any  radical  change  in  the  methods  of  either  distillation  or 
chemical  treatment. 


INDEX 


Page. 
AbiUiiliiiK'd    wells    (sff  rorrcxpondiiii/    roiiii- 

tiCf:)    .   -. - 19 

Adjustment  of  burners 79 

Adobe  soil,  oiled  roads  over. 174 

Advantages  in  use  of  oil__ 65 

Air  required  for  combustion... M 

Alameda  County,  operations  in 19 

American  Oil  and  Refining  Co.,  refinery...  211 

Annealing  glassware  by  oil ._ 157 

Analysis  of  oil,  method  of 197 

Table  of.. 198 

Analysis  of— 

Coal  gas 163 

Crude  oil,  Bitterwater 181 

Coalinga 192,  193.  194 

Colusa  County _  194 

Kern  River 196,  197 

MeKittriek 195,  196 

Moody's  Gulch 192 

San  Mateo 192 

Summerland 194 

Sunset.... ..--  195 

Ventura  County 194 

Gas  distillate 165 

Oil  gas 165 

Water  gas,  ''blue" 165 

Enriched 165 

Asphaltene  in  oil.. 224 

Asphalt,  distillation  for 203 

Oil 204 

Paving  with. .  208 

Bakersfield 35 

Bakersfield  oil  district.    See  Kern  River. 

Beam  pumping 17 

"Berkeley"  steamship 138 

Bitterwater,  crude,  analysis  of 191 

Blue  Goose  well 10 

Boiler  tests,  Santa  F6  Railroad 66 

Boiler  trials,  horizontal  tubular 66 

Water-tube -  148 

Boilers,  water-tube .- 146 

Brea  Caiion 22 

Brea  Canon  oil  field.    See  Fullerton. 

Brick-burning  by  oil I.'i8 

Burner,  air-injecting 77 

Air-operated. 78 

American  crude 77 

Chamber  mixing 77 

Combination 78 

F.  M.  Reed 78 

Grundell-Tucker 78 

Hammel 75 

Inside  mixing 76 

Oil  .     71 


Page. 

Burner,  Oil  City  Boiler  Works  75 

Pipe 73 

Selby 154 

Union  Drop  Forge  76 

Williams  ;     77 

W.  X.  Best 70 

Butte  County,  operations  in 19 

California  Liquid  Asphalt  Co.,  refinery 211 

California,  map  of.    See  Fig.  1. 

Calorific  value  of  crude  oil 54 

of  gas 163,  10.5,  107 

Capitol  Refining  Co.,  refinery 213 

Carbon  deposits 71,  99 

Care  of  oiled  roads... 173 

Chemistry  of  petroleum   220 

Clark  Refined  Oil  Co.,  refinery 211 

Cleaning  crude  oil 55 

Cleanliness  in  use  of  oil 59 

Climate  of  California 13 

Coal  gas,  analysis  of 133 

Manufacture  of. 162 

Coalinga.. 10 

Coalinga  field,  analysis  of  oil  from.. 192,  193,  194 

Operations  in 19 

Color  of  crude  oil '>" 

Columbian  Oil,  Asphalt,  and  Refining  Co., 

refinery     .    212 

Colusa  County,  analysis  of  oil  from ..  194 

Operations  in 19 

Combustion  chamber,  locomotive UK) 

Combustion  chamber   setting,  water-tube 

boiler.. 147 

Combustion  of  oil 62 

Commercial  analyses  of  crude 191 

Comparative  costs  of  fuel 69 

Compressed  air  for  burners 80 

Condensers 200 

Connections  to  burners 94 

Construction  of  oiled  roads 170 

Consumption  of  oil  on  roads 171 

Contra  Costa  County,  operations  in 19 

Conversion  of  locomotives  to  oil-burning  lOl-lo'i 

Cost.. 1117 

('oolers.  asphalt 2oi 

Coombs  Refining  Co.,  refinery... 212 

Copper-smelting  with  oil 151 

Cost  of  oiled  roads 177 

of  wells 17 

of  land 17 

of  fuel,  comparative  table 09 

Creosoting  process 160 

Crude-oil  water  gas,  manufacture lt'>0 

Analysis 107 

Densmore-Stabler  Refining  Co.,  refinery 212 


INDEX. 


229 


Pa(;k. 

Distillate,  for  gas,  analysis  of 165 

Down-flarac  burners,  water-tube  boiler 147 

Drilling ...    15 

Dustless  roads 169 

Eastern  Cons.  Oil  and  Refining  Co.,  refinery  2ia 

Economy  in  use  of  oil 60 

Elsmere  Cafion 29 

Engine  distillate 187 

Enrichment  of  water  gas,  oil  used 165 

Explosions  in  firebox 98 

Field  operations 18 

Finishing  oiled  roads 173 

Firebox,  for  oil  - 81 

G rate  bar 81 

Locomotive 101,  105,  113 

Semi-target 83 

Target -.. 82 

Tunnel 84,  85 

Firing  locomotives 102 

Flash  point,  crude  oil 53 

Fresno  County,  operations  in 19 

Fresno,  oiled  roads  in 169 

Fuel  consumption,  steamship  "Mariposa"..  136 

Fuel  costs,  comparative. - 60,  70 

Locomotive 108 

Fuel  tests,  Government 117 

Locomotive 109-112 

Water-tube  boiler 148 

Fuel  weight,  steamship 117 

Fullerton  field,  operations  in 19 

Description  of. 20 

Gas,  calorific  value  of 163,  165,  167 

Distillate,  analysis  of ._.  166 

From  oil 86 

Gas-making 161 

Gasoline 187 

Gasoline  refining... 202 

Gasoline  test  for  water. 97 

Geology. 14 

Glass  furnaces  using  oil.. 155 

Glenn  County,  operations  in 19 

Globe  Asphalt  Co.,  refinery 214 

Golden  Gate  Park,  oiled  roads  in 177 

Grading  oiled  roads 170 

Grate-bar  setting,  horizontal  tubular  boiler.  81 

Water-tube  boiler 146 

Gravity  feed 88 

Heater,  oil,  chamber  type 92 

Coil  type 92 

Tubular  type 91 

Heating  of  oil - 85 

Heating  value;  Heat  units.    See  Calorific 
Value. 

Heavy  distillates 190,  203,  204 

Hercules  Oil  Refining  Co.,  refinery 215 

History 9 

Humboldt  County,  operations  in 19 

Hydrocarbons  of  petroleum 220 

Impurities  in  oil.. 95 

Estimation  of 96 

Injection  of  oil 71 

Installation  of  burners .    79 

Inyo  County,  operations  in 19 

Jack  pumping 16 


Page. 

Kern  County,  oiled  roads  in 180 

Operations  in 19 

Kern  River  field,  analysis  of  oil  from 196,  197 

Description  of 35 

Operations  in 19 

Kerosene,  California,  quality  of 188 

Kerosene  refining 202 

King  Refining  Co.,  refinery 215 

Kings  County,  operations  in 19 

Labor  in  handling  oil 59 

Land  titles 17 

Light  oil  refining 186 

Liquid  asphalt 207 

Located  land 17 

Locomo  t  i  ves 100 

Los  Angeles  City  field,  description  of 27 

First  well  in 10 

Operations  in 19 

Los  Angeles  County,  operations  in 19 

Lowe  oil-water  gas,  manufacture. 166 

Lubricating  oils 189 

Manufacture  of 203 

Maps,  note  regarding 20 

"Mariposa"  steamship 124 

McKittrick  field,  analysis  of  oil  from  ...195,  196 

Description  of 41 

Operations  in 19 

Methods  of  refining 198 

Middlings 198,  203 

Midway  field,  description  of 40 

Operations  in. 19 

Moody's  Gulch  oil,  analysis  of 192 

Mt.  Cayetano 47 

Napa  County,  operations  in 19 

Navajo  Oil  and  Refining  Co.,  refinery 216 

New  Franklin  Oil  and  Refining  Co.,  refinery  216 

Newhall  oil  field,  description  of 29 

Operations  in 19 

Nitrogen  in  oil 223,  224 

Odor  of  crude  oil 50 

Oil  asphalt 204 

Oil  burners 71 

Oil  City  pool 43 

Oiled  roads 168 

Cost  of - 177 

Oil  gas,  analysis  of 165 

Oil  for  roads,  asphalt  in 182 

Method  of  testing 183 

Quality  of 182 

Table  of  tests.... 184 

Oiling  roads,  method  of 171 

Oil  pressure 88 

Oil  sands 16 

Oil  tanks,  locomotive 101,  106 

Orange  County,  operations  in 19 

Pacific  Coast  Oil  Co.,  pipe-line 36,  43 

Refinery 210 

Pacific  Oil  Transportation  Co.,  refinery 217 

Pacific  Oil  Relinery 216 

Pacific  Refining  Co.,  refinery 217 

Patented  land 18 

Paving,  asphalt 218 

Physical  properties  of  crude  oil 50 

Pico  Caiion 29 


230 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Pile  preservation 159-161 

Pipe  burners 73 

Pipe-lines,  Kern  River 52 

Oil,  capacity  of 51 

Oil,  with  water 53 

Piping  of  oil 89 

Placeritas  Caiion 29 

Pressure  regulation 19 

Producing  wells,  number  of 19 

Production  of  petroleum 11-12 

Puente  field,  description  of 22 

Operations  in 19 

Puente  Hills ...20,  22,  24 

Puente  Oil  Co.,  refinery 217 

Pumps  for  oil,  size 87 

Purification 225 

Quality  of  oil  for  roads 182 

Railroad  land 17 

Redistillation  of  oils 202 

Refined  products,  list  of 187 

Refineries,  illustrations  of ..210-219 

List  of 209 

Refining  industry. 185 

Refining  light  oil 186 

Refining  oils 191 

Method  of 198 

Regulation,  ease  of 59 

Of  oil  distillation 200 

Of  oil  fire 97 

Reoiling  roads 173 

Reservoirs,  oil.. ._     56 

Residuum  for  oiling  roads. ._ 185 

Reversed-fiame  setting,water-tube  boiler  147-148 

Riverside  County,  operations  in 19 

Roads,  oiled 168 

Rolling  of 170 

Running  sand 16 

San  Benito  County,  operations  in ._    19 

San  Bernardino  County,  oiled  roads  in 174 

Operations  in 19 

San  Diego  County,  operations  in 19 

San  Fernando  Mountains 29 

San  Luis  Obispo  County,  operations  in 19 

San  Mateo  County,  analysis  of  oil  from 192 

Operations  in ...    19 

San  Rafael  Mountains 47 

Santa  Barbara  County,  oiled  roads  in 178 

Operations  in.. 19 

Santa  Clara  County,  operationsin 19 

Santa  Cruz  County,  operations  in 19 

Santa  Maria  field,  description  of 45 

Operations  in 19 

Santa  Paula  Caiion 47 

Selection  of  burner... 79 

Semi-target     setting,     horizontal     tubular 

boiler 83 

Shasta  County,  operations  in 19 

Silliman,  Prof.  B 9 

Smelting  with  oil 1.51 

Solano  County,  operations  in.. 19 

Southern  Refilling  Co.,  refinery 218 

Southwestern  Oil  Refining  Co.,  refinery 218 


Page. 

Specifications  for  oiled  roads 178 

Specific  gravity  of  crude  oil.. 50,  54,  55 

Sprinkling  roads  with  oil.. 169 

Stanislaus  County,  operations  in 19 

Steaming  capacity  of  boilers 60 

Steam  in  oil  stills 201 

Steamship  fuel,  economy 141 

S.  P.  Co.'s  experience 140 

Steamship  oil  e<iuipment,  "Berkeley" 139 

Government  regulations. 142 

"  Mariposa  " 125 

Steamships ...    113 

Steamships  burning  oil,  list  of 114,  115 

Steam  stills. 202 

Steam,  superheated 99 

Stills 199,  204 

Storage  and  heating  of  oil 85 

Storage  space 58,  115 

Stove  oil 203 

Sulphur  in  oil _ .223,  224 

Sulphur  Mountain  .  47 

Summerland  field,  analysis  of  oil  from 194 

Description. 32 

Operations  in 19 

Sunset  field,  analysis  of  oil  from 195 

Description 38 

Operations  in. 19 

Sunset  Oil  Refining  Co.,  refinery .      210 

Target  setting,  horizontal  tubular  boiler...    82 

Tehama  County,  operations  in 19 

Temperature  of  oil  for  roads 172 

Tenders,  oil 107  " 

Testing  oil  for  roads.. 183  , 

Topography  of  California 13  : 

Transportation , 58 

Treatment  of  distillates 201 

Tunnel  setting,  horizontal  tubular  boiler.84,  85 

Ultimate  analyses  of  oil 225 

Union  Cons.  Oil  and  Refinery  Co.,  refinery.  219  ■ 

Union  Oil  Co.,  refinery 219 

Use  of  oil  for  fuel 58  . 

Valve,  gas  relief,  automatic 90 

Ventura  County,  analysis  of  oil  from 196 

Description  of 47 

Operations  in 19  i 

Viscosity  of  crude  oil 50,  51,  54,  55 

Volcan  Oil  and  Refining  Co.,  refinery 219 1 

Water  gas,  apparatus 164  1 

"Blue,"  analysis 165 1 

Enriched,  analysis 1651 

Manufacture  of 163 

Water-tube  boilers 164 

Combustion  chamber  setting 147 

Down-flame  burner 117 

Fuel  tests.. 118 

Grate-bar  setting Mil 

Reversed-flame  setting .147-148 

Wearing  surface  of  oiled  roads ITO 

Whittier  oil  field,  description  of Jl 

Operations  in 19 

Wiley  Canon i".t 

Winchell,  Lieut.,  report  by i:!ii 


111  144 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  DAVIS 


3  1175  02557  2564 


